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test, samples were only taken after the system had been allowed to reach steady state. Furthermore, for desalination tests, water recovery was measured by measuring the flow rates at each outlet. Sample conductivities were obtained via impedance spectroscopy using a Gamry Reference 3000 Potentiostat. 2.3 Results and Discussion 2.3.1 Device Characterization via IV-curves Before running any desalination experiments, the prototype was characterized using current-voltage sweeps. We conducted both slow linear sweeps in voltage and slow linear sweeps in current; however, sweeps in current proved to be much more reliable, since we found that voltage sweeps tended to overshoot and oscillate around the limiting current. This behavior is consistent with recent experiments [22] and was also confirmed by recent simulations [3]. Furthermore, the current sweeps also are more relevant to our system, as it is better to shock electrochemical systems under a controlled current, rather than a controlled voltage. Controlling the current will ensure the formation of a stable desalination shock in steady state by maintaining a current in the overlimiting regime [68, 121, 67, 24, 114, 99, 70]. In stark contrast, operating the system under constant voltage will allow the current to fluctuate (due to electro-osmotic instabilities and bubble formation in the electrode channels), which at best will lead to variable shock speed [122, 24] but may also disrupt the stable structure of the shock that is required for good desalination. Examples of typical polarization curves obtained under a slow sweep in current at a sweep rate of 25 nA/s (125 μA m−2 s−1) for 10 mM NaCl are plotted in Figure 2-7. The most significant features in these polarization curves are the current-onset voltage and the behavior at overlimiting current. Another important feature generally is the limiting current; however, it was actually difficult to determine from the typical curves that were obtained. The current-onset voltage was observed to be consistently close to 1 V, despite the fact that the standard potential for water electrolysis is 54PDF Image | Shock Electrodialysis for Water Purification and Electrostatic Correlations
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