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increases with increasing concentration, as expected, but doesn’t appear to depend much on other process parameters as indicated by the near collapse of all the data for 10 mM salt onto a single curve. In general, our device required quite significant amount of energy in the range of 10−2 to 103 kWh/m3, of which hydraulic pumping makes up about 0.004 kWh/m3, with overall energy efficiencies (Figure 2-17) that ranged between 0.073% and 0.67%, where energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of the thermodynamic energy requirement limit set by osmotic pressure [117] to the actual total energy requirement. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that our cur- rent efficiency (Figure 2-18) is at a maximum of 57.7% near the currents at which the onset of strong desalination occurs but then decays, seemingly exponentially, to as low as about 10% (Fig. 2-19) as the current increases, which is significantly less than the > 80% that is generally observed in electrodialysis [45]. Here the current efficiency is defined as CE(%) = z+eQd(c+,0−c+,d) ∗ 100%, where n is the number of nI repeat units (1 in this case). This behavior suggests that in our depleted region a significant fraction of our current (via surface current) is carried by protons instead of the salt cations. While the energy required for this current prototype is quite high, we have to keep in mind that this prototype has not at all been optimized. In fact, there are several ways in which the energy efficiency of this prototype can be improved. For one, using a stack of frits and membranes, instead of just a single frit, should improve the energy efficiency by decreasing the fraction of the applied voltage that is lost to reaction and transport losses at the electrodes. Furthermore, optimizing the surface charge, proton affinity, and matrix microporosity (to optimize shock formation and hence salt removal) of the porous medium and possibly even using a porous medium with anisotropic macroporosity to achieve a lower hydraulic resistance in the flow direction while maintaining optimal shock formation, should allow for the improvement of the energy use of each single layer. Lastly, we can use strategies that are used in traditional desalination systems, such as lost heat harvesting and utilization of brine and electrode streams in other processes, to also make this system more economical. 69PDF Image | Shock Electrodialysis for Water Purification and Electrostatic Correlations
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