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used glass frit does offers too much surface charge density to be able to operate SED efficiently. One possible lever to optimize the volumetric surface charge density would be to change the pore size. For example, increasing the pore size would decrease the volumetric surface charge density. Doing so would actually also address the second problem with the currently employed porous medium, namely that the pores are too small to efficiently drive flow through the frit. It currently takes pressures of about 3.3 psi to drive a flow of 76 μL/min through the frit. While this currently only contributes on the order of 1-10 Wh/m3 to the energy requirement of each layer, it does become significant when the device is scaled up. One possible other solution to address the problem of pumping energy is to use an anisotropic porous medium. Using a porous medium that has small pores in the direction of current flow would allow us to get the desired effective volumetric surface charge density for current conduction, while having larger pores in the direction of flow would require lower pressures to drive the flow. The main questions to be answered for an anisotropic material are whether we would be able to effectively remove the ions from the fluid that is in the large channels and whether obtaining anisotropic media on a large scale would be economically attractive, since one of the main advantages of SED is the use of fewer membranes and hence lower capital cost, which would ideally not be replaced by high porous media cost. One way to mitigate this is to decrease the thickness of the porous medium, since theory predicts that this should allow a similar flow rate for the same degree of ion removal as the thicker frit, since the fluid velocity can increase due to the need for the shock to propagate a smaller distance. In addition to changing the flow-through porous medium, another part of the cell to look at is the membrane. In theory, a membrane is not necessary to trigger the shock. All that we need is to have a porous medium with significantly smaller pores than the flow-through porous medium [68]. For example, we could certainly use a silica porous medium instead of the membrane, if we could make it with pores that are significantly smaller than 1 μm. Hence, one could conceive of making a stack of sintered porous media in which regions of macropores alternate with regions of mi- cropores, which would essentially be the equivalent to having alternating membranes 103PDF Image | Shock Electrodialysis for Water Purification and Electrostatic Correlations
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