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RPSEA Project 07122-12 TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES 1st Edition Evaporation Evaporation ponds use the natural water cycle driven by solar energy to evaporate water. Depending on the produced water quality, the ponds may be lined to prevent concurrent subsurface infiltration of the water. In other geologic settings, the ponds may be placed on natural confining layers such as bentonite rich clay soils, or exposed shales that prevent the downward migration of the groundwater [19]. If the evaporation pond is constructed solely for evaporative loss (no infiltration), the ponds are generally designed to be broad shallow pools that maximize the surface area allowing for increased evaporation rates. Once the water has evaporated, the salt sludge is either left in place or removed and hauled offsite for disposal. This disposal method can be expensive due to the large surface area required and the associated land and impermeable liner costs [125]. Regulatory requirements, ecological impacts, and possible concentration of trace elements to toxic levels may determine the design, construction, and operation of evaporation ponds. Evaporation ponds can be a viable option in relatively warm, dry climates with high evaporation rates, level terrain, and low land costs. They are typically economical and employed only for smaller concentrate flows. Evaporation rates can be enhanced by spraying the water through nozzles. However, this practice can lead to salt damage to soil and vegetation due to drifting. Therefore, misting towers are not currently recommended as a management practice [11]. Produced water can be managed at small onsite evaporation ponds or can be sent offsite to commercial facilities that employ large evaporation basins. Examples of commercial evaporation facilities can be found in Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming [1]. Solar energy ponds are special type of evaporation alternatives that focus on capturing solar energy with the goal to use it beneficially. The approach uses salinity gradients to trap energy in the lower, higher density layer of the concentrate in the pond. The solar energy penetrates the upper, less concentrated layers. The lower, heated layer does not rise due to the higher concentration and density and the absence of convection, and thus reaches significantly high temperatures. The energy trapped in this layer is extracted and can be used to generate electricity. Solar ponds have some concentrate volume-reducing properties but they are not a concentrate management process [126]. ALL Consulting investigated the potential of using evaporation ponds in some of the areas of interest for CBM development [19]. For example, the Powder River Basin (PRB) of Montana and Wyoming and the San Juan Basin of Colorado, evaporation rates between 28 and 40 in/yr have been historically recorded, while areas in Utah have evaporation rates between 40 and 52 in/yr. The Gulf Coast region of Louisiana and Texas has average evaporation rates between 48 and 70 in/yr. Thus in the areas where future CBM development is expected to occur, the potential exists for evaporation to result in a significant amount of managed water loss. Although some portions of these states have considerable annual evaporation, seasonal variations should be taken into account. The contaminants in produced water such as selenium, oil, and other hydrocarbons may pose potential problems to migratory waterfowl. Covering ponds with netting helps to avoid this problem [57]. The technical assessment of evaporation ponds for produced water disposal is summarized in Table 32. 83PDF Image | TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
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