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RPSEA Project 07122-12 TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES 1st Edition The advantage of the constructed wetland systems includes low construction and operation costs (Cooper, et al., 1996, cited from All consulting report [168]), approximately 1 to 2 cents/bbl. Kuipers estimated the constructed wetlands costs from 1 to 7 cents per barrel per day [170]. Constructed wetland systems are easy to maintain, but they have slow operation rate. The long-term use of artificial wetlands for organic removal treatment is 20 years and provides excellent wildlife habitat. Constructed wetlands have several constraints on their usefulness: 1) Wetlands require a large amount of land per unit volume of water; 2) A sufficient supply of water is necessary to support the wetland; 3) The source and quality of wastewater may require pretreatment, in some agricultural and municipal cases wastewater must be pre-treated before entering a treatment wetland (Gopal, 1999, cited from [171]); and 4) Periodic release of captured contaminants during high flow periods or periods when vegetation decomposes may occur. A limitation of wetlands in cold climates is that primary function may be minimal during winter months. A possible solution to this problem would be to spray the inflow water in the air. This would cause the fresh water to freeze (some would evaporate as well), and the remaining water would be more concentrated in respect to the salts [171]. For engineered wetlands, the change in TDS due to significant evapotranspiration is important to consider in a hot and dry climate [172]. Desalination process located downstream from the engineered wetland may be needed to reduce the TDS concentration to required effluent concentrations. Various plant types have been studied and identified for salt tolerance and uptake, as well as for their quality as forage for livestock. A possible strategy to aid in processing CBM product water is to construct a wetland composed of a variety of halophytic plants which have dense fibrous root systems, uptake salts and sodium, can be used as forage, have high evapotranspiration and water use rates, or a combination of these traits. Wetlands may have significant ecological and environmental impact. They provide areas that can be utilized by wetland birds and animals and aquatic life. Wetlands can also be utilized for livestock and wildlife watering purposes [170]. On the other hand, the contaminants in CBM produced water may affect fish and wildlife. For example, the research conducted by the USGS has demonstrated acute and chronic sodium bicarbonate toxicity to aquatic species. The CBM produced water discharges containing selenium in concentrations above 2 mg/L may cause bioaccumulation in sensitive species [173]. In addition, if the wetlands are constructed as part of direct discharge, they will change habitat from increased flows and increased erosion. Impacts to downstream users due to direct discharges would be higher with increased flows during traditional low flow periods and increased sedimentation from erosion. The technical assessment of constructed wetlands for produced water disposal is summarized in Table 53. Table 53. Summary of technical assessment of constructed wetlands. Criteria Industrial status Feed water quality bins Product water quality Production efficiency (recovery) Description/Rationale Industrialized technology. Have been used for produced water management. In general < discharge limit if surface discharge applied. Salt concentration of water in which halophytic plants are grown ranged from 2 to 6 % (corresponding to 20,000 to 60,000 mg/L, EC 30 - 90 dS/m) [171]. Not applicable. Variable, mainly discharge technology. 136PDF Image | TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
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