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Distribution In vivo distribution of nanoparticles is dependent on various multiple transport mechanisms, such as opsonization, protein corona formation, mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) uptake, enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, tar- get-mediated disposition and lymphatic transport [13]. The liver has been described as the primary organ for Ag distribution followed by spleen and kidneys, whether the exposure was oral, intravenous, or subcutaneous or through inhalation. In several cell types deposition of silver in the liver has been detected including the Kupffer cells, hepatocytes and sinusoidal endothelium cells. Deposition of silver was observed in all regions of kidney, including the cortex, medulla, inner medulla, and cortical glomeruli and gender-related difference was reported in the kidney of rats regarding accumulation of silver following repeated oral exposure, with a two-fold inflation in females as compared to males [12]. Metabolism Silver has been documented to be deposited as particles in tissue, such as the skin epidermis, the glomeruli, and the intestines following oral exposure to both ionic and nanopar- ticulate silver suspensions. The particle size of these nanopar- ticles has been described to be 12 nm in diameter in the rat intestine and contain sulphur and selenium apart from silver [16]. Agþ can react with GSH, producing Hþ and GS–Ag, which ultimately forms Ag–GSH polymer complexes, followed by partitioning to various tissues. Upon UV-photodecomposition, Ag–thiol complexes can further be reduced to zero-valent AgNPs with slower rates in visible light. Besides thiols, AgNPs can also be sulphidated to produce Ag2S NPs. In addition, Ag2S NPs can interact with selenium to produce Ag2Se NPs and Ag/S/Se argyrial particulate [12]. Elimination A study reported low excretion of silver in urine is (<0.1% of 24h intake for both groups) but high in faeces; 63 and 49% of the daily dose for AgNPs and silver acetate groups, respectively, following a 28-day repeated oral exposure to 14 nm PVP-coated AgNPs or silver acetate in rats [12]. Faecal excretion: Following oral administration the faecal excretion rate is reported to be higher for 14 nm AgNP than for ionic silver; namely 63 and 49% for nanoparticles and ionic silver, respectively. This was ascribed to the lower bio- availability of silver nanoparticles [16]. Urinary excretion: East et al. reported that the urinary excretion at 12h of an orally administered dose of radioactive silver tracer in a woman was in the range of 2–4 1 04% [14]. Furchner et al. reported urine excretion of silver following orally administered 110 radionuclide of silver [17]. Van der Zande et al. found that after 8weeks of post oral dosing of silver or silver nanoparticles (15 and 20nm), silver was still present in rat brain and testes [18]. Drug delivery aspects of silver nanoparticles Different formulations Patil and Kumbhar synthesized silver nanoparticle via green synthesis using extract of Lantana camara L. leaves and found these NPs to exhibit dose dependent antioxi- dant potential comparable to that of standard ascorbic acid. AgNPs also showed significant antimicrobial activity against Gram positive Staphylococcus aureus than Gram negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and E. coli comparable with standard, Ciprofloxacin [19]. Jha et al. synthesized AgNPs from Ocimum tenuiflorum extract followed by study of AgNP loaded multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) with mammalian sperm to evaluate the increased targeting potential for the devel- opment of portable diagnostic tool for the infertility man- agement. AFM demonstrated the loading of AgNP inside MWCNT as surface height of MWCNT increased from 22 to 32nm, which in turn assured the encapsulation of 10 nm size of AgNP inside the tube [20]. Kumar et al. reported green synthesis of AgNP by Jatropha curcas and Lannea grandis, which further dem- onstrated low MIC and low minimum biofilm eradication concentration against C. albicans biofilm. The formulation developed was stable and cytotoxic against goat blood RBC and it could be further used for treatment of C. albi- cans associated infection [21]. Bilal et al. synthesized AgNPs loaded chitosan-alginate construct from methanolic extract of E. helioscopia and antibacterial activities against six clinically pathogenic strains including S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneu- moniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Morganella morganii and Haemophilus influenza were investigated. All con- struct exhibited excellent biocompatibility for normal cell line, i.e. L929 and anti-cancer efficacy against HeLa cells. Thus, the newly engineered construct could be a useful candidate for biomedical applications [22]. Castangia et al. synthesized grape-silver nanoparticles sta- bilized by phospholipids vesicles, which inhibited prolifer- ation of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa providing safeguard of keratinocytes and fibroblast against oxidative stress that could be used as topical formulation for skin dam- ages [23]. Loo et al. investigated interaction of silver and curcumin NPs against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria and their 100 mg/mL concentration distorted matured bacterial biofilms. This formulation could be used for its sustained antibacterial effects [24]. Ibrahim and Hassan developed silver nanoparticle func- tionalized cotton fabric using green synthesis, which dis- played good qualitative and quantitative antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus and support that this property could be further utilized in manufacturing anti- microbial finishing and textiles [25]. Jadhav et al. synthesized antibacterial silver nanoparticles using extract of Ammannia baccifera. AgNPs gel (0.025% w/w) when compared with marketed 0.2% w/w silver nitrate gel displayed equal zone of inhibition against all pathogenic bacteria responsible for infections in burns. ARTIFICIAL CELLS, NANOMEDICINE, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY S117PDF Image | Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology
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