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Pharmaceutics 2020, 12, 1044 13 of 19 4.3. DNA Damage The DNA of any organism stores genetic information about the cell. Damage to the DNA can either result in mutation or cell death. Cui et al. [113] studied the mechanism of the bactericidal effect of AuNPs on E. coli (ATCC 11775) through transcriptomic and proteomic approaches. The antibacterial mPhearcmhaacenuitsicms 20o2f0A, 1u2,Nx FPOsRwPaEsERfoRuEnVdIEtWo be due to (i) a change in membrane potential and inhibit1io3nofo20f ATPase activities that led to a decrease in ATP level thus a reduction in metabolism and (ii) inhibition action was not due to ROS. This might be novel to developing bactericidal MNPs, which aims at the of the subunit of ribosome for tRNA binding. Their finding showed that the bactericidal action was energy metabolism and transcription of bacteria without generation of ROS species that could be not due to ROS. This might be novel to developing bactericidal MNPs, which aims at the energy harmful to the mammalian host of the bacteria. The antibacterial mechanism of AgNPs on the clinical metabolism and transcription of bacteria without generation of ROS species that could be harmful to isolates of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus was studied by Abbas et al. [114]. This was done by analyzing the mammalian host of the bacteria. The antibacterial mechanism of AgNPs on the clinical isolates of the effect of AgNPs on the bacterial genome by estimating the amplification of AgNPs treated or P. aeruginosa and S. aureus was studied by Abbas et al. [114]. This was done by analyzing the effect of untreated bacteria with DNA by real-time PCR. The results by real-time PCR showed damage in the AgNPs on the bacterial genome by estimating the amplification of AgNPs treated or untreated bacteria DNA of P. aeruginosa. This was exemplified by the delay in the amplification of the exoA gene in the with DNA by real-time PCR. The results by real-time PCR showed damage in the DNA of P. aeruginosa. treated sample compared to the control sample. In addition, this also lowered amplification efficiency This was exemplified by the delay in the amplification of the exoA gene in the treated sample compared in AgNPs bacteria as compared with the untreated bacteria. This clearly shows that the mechanism to the control sample. In addition, this also lowered amplification efficiency in AgNPs bacteria as of the bactericidal effect of biosynthesized AgNPs on E. coli and S. aureus can been attributed to DNA compared with the untreated bacteria. This clearly shows that the mechanism of the bactericidal effect cleavage activity [115]. DNA as the genetic information unit of all livings organisms is fundamental of biosynthesized AgNPs on E. coli and S. aureus can been attributed to DNA cleavage activity [115]. to functional existence. An alteration in the genetic composition opens the pathway to malfunctioning DNA as the genetic information unit of all livings organisms is fundamental to functional existence. An and eventually cell death. In recent times the DNA cleavage ability of Rosa canin-AgNPs was alteration in the genetic composition opens the pathway to malfunctioning and eventually cell death. investigated using agarose gel electrophoresis [116]. A difference in band was observed in the treated In recent times the DNA cleavage ability of Rosa canin-AgNPs was investigated using agarose gel plasmids with AgNPs compared to that of the control DNA (Figure 9). It was noticed that plasmid electrophoresis [116]. A difference in band was observed in the treated plasmids with AgNPs compared pBR322 changed from Form I into Form II for Lanes 2–4. Furthermore, at a concentration of 200 mg/L to that of the control DNA (Figure 9). It was noticed that plasmid pBR322 changed from Form I into for 90 min, the AgNPs served as chemical nucleases by cleaving the DNA Form I into Form III (lane Form II for Lanes 2–4. Furthermore, at a concentration of 200 mg/L for 90 min, the AgNPs served as 5). Conclusively it can be said that the AgNPs exerted a bactericidal effect by cleaving the genome of chemical nucleases by cleaving the DNA Form I into Form III (lane 5). Conclusively it can be said that the pathogenic microorganism. the AgNPs exerted a bactericidal effect by cleaving the genome of the pathogenic microorganism. Figure 9. DNA cleavage activity of Rc-AgNPs. Lane 1, pBR 322 DNA; Lane 2, pBR 322 DNA + 100 mg/L Figure 9. DNA cleavage activity of Rc-AgNPs. Lane 1, pBR 322 DNA; Lane 2, pBR 322 DNA + 100 of Rc-AgNPs (60 min incubation); Lane 3, pBR 322 DNA + 200 mg/L of Rc-AgNPs (90 min incubation); mg/L of Rc-AgNPs (60 min incubation); Lane 3, pBR 322 DNA + 200 mg/L of Rc-AgNPs (90 min Lane 4, pBR 322 DNA + 100 mg/L of Rc-AgNPs (60 min incubation) and Lane 5, pBR 322 DNA + incubation); Lane 4, pBR 322 DNA + 100 mg/L of Rc-AgNPs (60 min incubation) and Lane 5, pBR 322 200 mg/L of Rc-AgNPs (90 min incubation) Rc = Rosa canin, adapted with permission from [116], DNA + 200 mg/L of Rc-AgNPs (90 min incubation) Rc = Rosa canin, adapted with permission from Elsevier, 2019. [116], Elsevier, 2019. 5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives 5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives Green synthesis of nanoparticles can serve as a future direction in biomedical nanotechnology Green synthesis of nanoparticles can serve as a future direction in biomedical nanotechnology for the development of effective antimicrobial compounds. It has been established in the literature for the development of effective antimicrobial compounds. It has been established in the literature that MNPs exhibit strong antibacterial activity. Multiple pathways simultaneously activated by NPs that MNPs exhibit strong antibacterial activity. Multiple pathways simultaneously activated by NPs make their exposure to bacteria cells effective and this is promising to combat antibiotic resistance. The production of ROS, cell wall penetration, DNA damage and metabolite binding are mechanisms evasive to bacteria’s defense systems. Most research in the biosynthesis of MNPs uses the whole plant extracts as a bioreductant and stabilizer. However, identification of the pure biomolecule or compound responsible will help optimize the synthesis and its antibacterial application. This willPDF Image | Bactericidal Antibacterial Mechanism of Plant Nanoparticles
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