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Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 422 13 of 16 5. Conclusions In this study, we biosynthesized AgNPs by using the aqueous leaf extract of C. gigantean. Our data demonstrated the efficient anti-candidal activity of a combination of biosynthesized AgNPs and the plant extracts of C. gigantean (AgNPs/CG). AgNPs/CG significantly inhibited the growth, morphogenesis, adhesion, biofilm formation, and the secretion of antioxidant defense enzymes by C. albicans. In addition, AgNPs/CG showed no sign of cytotoxicity, even at concentrations higher than the calculated MIC. Thus, AgNPs/CG provides a novel strategy for preventing the pathogenesis of C. albicans by suppressing the key virulence factors and development of biofilms. However, further preclinical studies are needed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of AgNPs/CG in the treatment of candidiasis in vivo. Availability of Data and Materials: All materials are available from the corresponding author. Author Contributions: E.M.A. conceived the project, designed the study, performed experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. B.M.A. designed the study, performed experiments, and edited the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This work was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia, under Nasher Track (grant no. 186324). Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa for the financial support under Nasher Track (Grant no. 186324). Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. References 1. Gow, N.A.R.; Yadav, B. Microbe Profile: Candida albicans: A shape-changing, opportunistic pathogenic fungus of humans. Microbiology 2017, 163, 1145–1147. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 2. Martins, N.; Ferreira, I.C.; Barros, L.; Silva, S. Henriques M: Candidiasis: Predisposing factors, prevention, diagnosis and alternative treatment. Mycopathologia 2014, 177, 223–240. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 3. Pfaller, M.A.; Diekema, D.J. Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: A persistent public health problem. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2007, 20, 133–163. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 4. Mayer, F.L.; Wilson, D.; Hube, B. Candida albicans pathogenicity mechanisms. Virulence 2013, 4, 119–128. [CrossRef] 5. Marak, M.B.; Dhanashree, B. Antifungal Susceptibility and Biofilm Production of Candida spp. Isolated from Clinical Samples. Int. J. Microbiol. 2018, 2018, 7495218. [CrossRef] 6. Gauwerky, K.; Borelli, C.; Korting, H.C. Targeting virulence: A new paradigm for antifungals. Drug Discov. Today 2009, 14, 214–222. [CrossRef] 7. Taff, H.T.; Mitchell, K.F.; Edward, J.A.; Andes, D.R. Mechanisms of Candida biofilm drug resistance. Future Microbiol. 2013, 8, 1325–1337. [CrossRef] 8. Jalal, M.; Ansari, M.A.; Alzohairy, M.A.; Ali, S.G.; Khan, H.M.; Almatroudi, A.; Siddiqui, M.I. Anticandidal activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles: Effect on growth, cell morphology, and key virulence attributes of Candida species. Int. J. Nanomed. 2019, 14, 4667–4679. [CrossRef] 9. Saravanan, M.; Arokiyaraj, S.; Lakshmi, T.; Pugazhendhi, A. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Phenerochaete chrysosporium (MTCC-787) and their antibacterial activity against human pathogenic bacteria. Microb. Pathog. 2018, 117, 68–72. [CrossRef] 10. El-Moslamy, S.H. Bioprocessing strategies for cost-effective large-scale biogenic synthesis of nano-MgO from endophytic Streptomyces coelicolor strain E72 as an anti-multidrug-resistant pathogens agent. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 3820. [CrossRef] 11. Ovais, M.; Khalil, A.T.; Raza, A.; Khan, M.A.; Ahmad, I.; Islam, N.U.; Saravanan, M.; Ubaid, M.F.; Ali, M.; Shinwari, Z.K. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via plant extracts: Beginning a new era in cancer theranostics. Nanomedicine 2016, 11, 3157–3177. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 12. Kadiyala, M.; Ponnusankar, S.; Elango, K. Calotropis gigantiea (L.) R. Br (Apocynaceae): A phytochemical and pharmacological review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2013, 150, 32–50. [CrossRef] [PubMed]PDF Image | Inhibition of Candidiasis Calotropis Silver Nanoparticles
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