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Molecules 2020, 25, 4613 15 of 36 cells [226]. Moreover, chitosan readily interacts with negatively charged polymers, conferring targeting properties to nanoparticles. Chitosan has been widely used as a carrier in drug delivery systems. By increasing the release time and adhesion of polyphenols, chitosan nanoparticles significantly improved the functional activity and oral availability of the active substances. Encapsulation by chitosan enables the available concentration of green tea polyphenols to meet physiological requirements during treatment. The EGCG nanoformulation has an 8-fold dosage advantage compared with natural polyphenols. In addition, EGCG nanoparticles significantly induced apoptosis in human melanoma cells [227]. Similarly, the nanoparticles inhibited the growth of gastric cancer cells and reduced the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor protein by controlling the release of EGCG in gastric acid [228]. Studies have shown that the stability of chitosan-gum arabic polysaccharide nanoparticles loaded with curcumin in a simulated gastrointestinal environment is significantly improved. The release of curcumin is delayed, and the antioxidant activity of the active substance is also significantly enhanced [229]. Compared with free curcumin, curcumin-chitosan nanoparticles are more easily absorbed by colon cancer cells. The adhesion also prolongs contact time, resulting in a decrease in cell viability [230]. Although chitosan has many excellent features, properties required for some specific applications can be obtained by modifying it. Curcumin diethyl ester encapsulated with chitosan-alginate nanoparticles can be stored stably at 4 ◦C for three months, and the nanoparticles significantly improve cellular uptake by Caco-2 cells [231]. Studies have shown that folate-modified chitosan nanoparticles are able to target breast cancer cells, which complements curcumin-induced apoptosis of breast cancer cells. In addition, folic acid-modified chitosan nanoparticles are also responsive to pH changes. Compared with natural resveratrol, resveratrol loaded in carboxymethyl chitosan exhibits prolonged absorption and duration of action. Its antioxidant activity and bioavailability are also significantly increased [232]. In addition to the simple encapsulation of polyphenols, chitosan is increasingly popular in the food packaging industry, due to its film-forming ability and biodegradability [233]. It has been reported that pure chitosan has good mechanical strength and air permeability, but its antioxidant performance is not ideal. Addition of polyphenolic compounds with antioxidant properties can solve such problems [234]. A large number of studies have shown that the addition of polyphenols greatly improves resistance to oxidation, thermal stability, mechanical strength and pH-responsiveness of chitosan membranes [235–237]. 3.5.3. Cyclodextrins Cyclodextrin (CD) is the general term for a series of circular oligosaccharides produced by amylose under the action of cyclodextrin glucosyl transferase. As a natural carrier, it has been widely used in the pharmaceutical and food industries for encapsulation of bioactive compounds to improve their bioavailability and stability. Cyclodextrins are circular oligosaccharides with hollow pyramidal structures connected by 6, 7 or 8 glucose residues via 1,4 glycosidic bonds. They are produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of starch [238]. In nature, they exist as α-, β- and γ-CDs (Figure 7). The hydrophobic inner cavities of CDs can be used to encapsulate phenolic compounds to protect them from the external environment, such as pH, light, temperature and oxygen. Studies have confirmed that the encapsulation of resveratrol into a cyclodextrin-based metal-organic framework greatly improves its stability [239]. It is controversial whether the complexation of polyphenols by cyclodextrin will affect their biological activity. It has been found that catechins and cyclodextrins interact through intermolecular O–H...O hydrogen bonds. The establishment of this host-guest relationship helps to improve the antioxidant capacity of polyphenols [240]. Similarly, when β-cyclodextrin is used to extract and protect phenolic compounds in olive oil, it does not affect their in vitro bioavailability [241]. In contrast, it was found that the oxygen radical absorbance capacity-fluorescein (ORAC-FL) value of the (+) catechin-cyclodextrin complex was lower than that of free catechin, indicating that complexation reduced the antioxidant activity ofPDF Image | Nanoformulations to Enhance the Bioavailability and Physiological Functions of Polyphenols
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