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Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 1146 6 of 24 due to structural diversity, viral capsids are exploited as a biotemplate for material synthesis [78–81]. The viral NPs can be engineered genetically, chemically and also utilized as nano-templates at three levels of their structure [82]. The capsids of viruses are arranged by repeating protein subunits to form highly precise three-dimensional symmetrical structures with uniform shape and size [83,84]. The synthesis of nanomaterials using viruses is a clean, nontoxic and environmentally-friendly method which provides a broad range of sizes, shapes, compositions, and physicochemical properties [83,85]. In a study, a notorious plant pathogenic virus, Squash leaf curl China virus (SLCCNV) was used as biotemplate to fabricate silver and gold nanomaterials. The SLCCNV was exposed to HAuCl4 and AgNO3 precursors in presence of sunlight and quick (∼5 min) formation of SLCCNV-metallic-hybrid nanomaterials in an eco-friendly way was observed [86]. A wild type bacteriophage P22 was utilized for synthesis of cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanocrystal quantum dots on its ∼60 nm procapsid. The bacteriophage P22 shell possessed capsomers composed of hexameric and pentameric clusters. The pre-synthesized CdS quantum dots resemble the hexameric and pentameric patterns of assembly on the P22 shells, which might be due to interaction with particular protein pockets [87]. In another research, tobacco mosaic virus and bovine papilloma virus were used as additive materials with plant extracts Avena sativa, Hordeumvulgare, Musa pradisiaca and Nicotiana benthamiana. These two viruses promoted the reduction and increase the NPs number remarkably as compared to a control without virus [14,88]. These viral synthesized nanomaterials have a wide range of applications in biomedicine and serve as catalysts to biosensors [89]. Similarly, M13 bacteriophage can be used as versatile template for engineering various nanomaterials [90].Although a number of viruses and bacteriophages have been exploited for green synthesis of metallic NPs, no study is available regarding their application in the control of phytopathogens. 2.2. Nanoparticles from Microalgae The synthesis of microalgae-based NPs, termed “phyconanotechnology”, has become an emerging area with wide scope in recent years. A large number of photoautotrophic microorganisms belong to microalgae which contain secondary metabolites, pigments and proteins [91,92]. These microorganisms can act as nano biofactories for synthesis of metallic NPs [93–97]. A number of methodologies have been developed for metallic NPs synthesis using microalgae from their corresponding aqueous salt solutions which can determine the size and shape of NPs with good quality. Synthesis of microalgae driven NPs can be obtained by using extracted biomolecules from disrupted cells of microalgae [92,98]. Microalgae can be exploited as an efficient bionanofactory, capable of producing metallic NPs by reducing various metal ions such as silver, gold, cadmium, and [98,99]. Both the live and died dried biomass of microalgae can be used to synthesize metallic NPs. Several microalgae such as Chlorella vulgaris, Spirulina platensis, and Lyngbya majuscule have been utilized for biosynthesis of AGNPs [93,100]. The biosynthesis of AgNPs extracellularly using a marine cyanobacterium, Oscillatoriawillei NTDM01 which reduced silver ions and stabilized the AgNPs by a secreted protein. The extracted biomolecules of Chlorella vulgaris, a single-celled green microalga was used to synthesize AgNPs [101]. In another study, living cells Chlorella vulgaris were incubated along with gold chloride solution and after incubation cells were harvested followed by centrifugation. NPs were detected inside intact cells by TEM and assigned to metallic gold by synchrotron-based X-ray powder diffraction and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The sizes of the intracellular AuNPs were 40–60 nm in diameter [102]. Arsiya et al. reported the green synthesis of palladium NPs by Chlorella vulgaris aqueous extract [103]. The biomass was dried, powdered homogeneously, boiled in water and the crude extract was filtered. Aqueous solution of PdCl2 was mixed with crude filtrate of Chlorella vulgaris and solution color was changed to yellow dark brown indicating formation of PdNPs [103]. Marine microalgae such as Chaetoceros calcitrans, Chlorella salina, Isochrysis galbana and Tetraselmis gracilis were used to synthesize AgNPs [104]. A large number of studies of algal NPs are available but their use in phytopathogenic control is yet to be determined. A list of NPs have been synthesized from various microbes are given in Table 1.PDF Image | Plant and Microbe-Based Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles
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