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Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 1146 9 of 24 2.3. Nanoparticles from Plant Extracts Plants are well known for their ability to reduce metal ions on the surface and different organs or tissues at distance from the penetration sites of ions. The study of the accumulation of metal ions in plants suggested the transformation of metals to NPs [123]. For example, Medicago sativa and Brassica juncea grown withAgNO3 accumulated 12.4 wt. % and 13.6% wt. % silver, respectively, as AgNPs with a size of 50 nm [124]. In other studies, gold icosahedra of 4 nm in size were observed in M. sativa [125], and 2 nm of semi-spherical copper particles were observed in Iris pseudacorus [126] grown on the respective metal salt-containing substrates. In recent years, various in vitro approaches have been developed in which plants extracts are being used as reducing agents for synthesis of NPs [123]. For this green synthesis of NPs, extracts of different plant species along with a variety of acids and metal salts, such as copper, gold, silver, platinum, iron have been used [127–129].The plant materials that have been used for NPs synthesis are more beneficial than microbial or chemical methods as there are no effects of microbes or hazardous chemical contamination. Moreover, it requires less energy and has easy and broader implications [130]. The green synthesis of NPs mediated by plant extracts involves the alleviation of metal ions [131] due to the presence of biomolecules such as phenols, terpenoids, ketones, carboxylic acids, aldehydes, enzymes, amides, and flavonoids [130,132–135]. The plant extracts prepared from their different parts such as roots, stems, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds have been used for green synthesis of NPs [136–142]. The plant extracts can function as reducing and stabilizing agents in the green synthesis of NPs [133]. A variety of green synthesized NPs from different plant species have been reported in last few years. For example, AgNPs have been synthesized from fruit extract of Phyllanthus emblica [130], leaves extract of Citrus limon [143], green tea (Camellia sinensis) [144], Coffea Arabica [145], neem (Azadirachta indica) [146], Acalypha indica [147], Aloe vera plant extract [148], latex of Jatropha gossypifolia [149], root extract of Morinda citrifolia [150], Phoenix dactylifera [151], inflorescence extract of Mangifera indica [152]. Zinc oxide NPs (ZnONPs) and titanium dioxide NPs (TiO2NPs) synthesized from extract of fresh lemon fruits (Citrus limon) showed antibacterial activity [133]. Zinc oxide NPs (ZnONPs) synthesized from extract of chamomile flower (Matricaria chamomilla), olive leave (Olea europaea) and red tomato fruit (Lycopersicon esculentum) showed antibacterial actions. Aqueous Rosemary extract was used to synthesize the MgO nano-flowers (MgONFs) having antibacterial potentials [132]. The quality, size and shape of these green synthesized NPs are dependent on various factors like plant extract concentrations and their compositions, metal salt concentration, reaction pH, reaction temperature [12,13,153]. Some NPs recently synthesized in a green way from plant materials used for plant pathogen management are listed in the Table 2.PDF Image | Plant and Microbe-Based Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles
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