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Theranostics 2020, Vol. 10, Issue 20 9007 Figure 3. Schematic representation of the mechanisms of AgNPs against bacteria, depicting ROS-dependent pathway, DNA damage, protein denaturation and enzyme inactivation for antibacterial action of AgNPs. For example, AgNPs can bind to the glycoprotein knobs and inhibit the reverse transcriptase (RT) of HIV-1 and interact with the virus in size- and dose-dependent manner [169, 185]. To develop AgNPs for antimicrobial applications, the detailed mechanism needs to be further studied. Antimicrobial Mechanisms of AgNPs The antimicrobial effect of AgNPs has been widely studied, and the mechanisms are being explored. It is observed that AgNPs can anchor and then penetrate the bacterial membrane, and subsequently trigger the destruction of cell membrane and leakage of content [187]. Besides, AgNPs can influence crucial intracellular activities, such as attacking the respiratory chain, disturbing DNA replication and inhibiting cell division [188]. The antibacterial mechanisms of AgNPs are illustrated in Figure 3. AgNPs also have a good microbicidal effect in drug-resistant fungi via influencing the cellular targets, which are involved in the drug resistance and pathogenicity. For example, Venkatraman et al. [189] demonstrated that AgNPs could affect drug sensitivities by acting on multiple cellular targets of Candida albicans, including fatty acids like oleic acid, which were important in the hyphal morphogenesis involved in the pathogenicity. Some studies speculate that AgNPs can saturate and adhere to the fungal hypha and eventually inactivate the fungus [180]. The antiviral mechanism of AgNPs has also been deeply explored. AgNPs can be used to prevent viral infection against several virus by blocking virus contact with cells and entry steps, or directly inactivating the virus, including herpes simplex virus (HSV), human parainfluenza virus 3, vaccinia virus, chikungunya virus and respiratory syncytial virus [182, 190-192]. These studies indicate that AgNPs can be used as a novel promising virucide agent. In order to develop safe and effective antimicrobial agents, the yet-to-be-determined mechanisms of antimicrobial properties of AgNPs are needed to be further studied. Nematicidal and Anthelmintic Activity Worm infection via contact with contaminated soil is one of the most common diseases among children from middle and low-income countries [193]. Worm infections often lead to stunted growth, malnutrition and lagging academic performance [193, 194]. According to recent studies, AgNPs may become a candidate as a novel insecticide. Saha et al. [195] confirmed that AgNPs were effective in killing filaria and larvae. AgNPs induced the cell apoptosis and destroyed parasites mainly through the generation of ROS. It was worth noting that the carbohydrate http://www.thno.orgPDF Image | Silver nanoparticles Synthesis medical applications safety
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