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IbD PU Deliverable 3.1 to-minutes, while the conventional drying could take minutes-to-hours. Uniform heating leading to uniform temperature distribution in the product can be achieved with the inherent uniform distribution of the microwave field, which can hardly be achieved in the conventional drying. Microwave drying has been used to process small molecule pharmaceuticals (Mandal, 1995; McMinn et al., 2007). In these studies, microwave drying caused no thermal damage to pharmaceutical powder surface or interior. Microwave has also been applied in hybrid drying processes, such as microwave-assisted vacuum drying (MVD) and microwave-assisted freeze-drying (MFD). MVD takes advantage of microwave heating with high energy efficiency by lowering the boiling point of water with vacuum applied. MFD employs microwave field as the heat source for sublimation in the freeze-drying process (Puschner, 2015). 7.1.4 Heterogeneous catalytic reactions Microwaves can be used for selective heating in heterogeneous catalytic reactions involving gas-solid systems. Roussy et al. (1994) investigated the selective heating of a catalyst particle in a low temperature gas phase environment using microwave technique. Microwave heating resulted in higher hydrocarbons selectivity and reduction of oxidation products compared to conventional oven heating. 7.2 Ultrasound Ultrasound technology involves the use of sound waves that are beyond the frequencies detectable by the human ear. The frequency of ultrasound is normally considered to lie between 20 kHz and 500 MHz (Boodhoo and Harvey, 2013). Ultrasonication is the irradiation of a liquid, solid or gas with ultrasound waves resulting in agitation of the particles or liquid. The molecules of the medium through which ultrasound waves pass are induced by the waves, thereby generating the energy for chemical and mechanical effects. Ultrasound waves can be highly effective in liquid or gaseous streams where solid particles are present. Ultrasound through a liquid medium induces cavitation effects which cause fast and complete degassing (Figure 56). 56PDF Image | Solids handling for intensified process technology
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