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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al magnesium, and titanium ores mitigates environmental impacts and offers a global opportunity for the deployment of safe and affordable batteries to both the developing and the developed parts of the world. Advances in science and technology to meet challenges The principal research challenges facing the development of improved P2 | O3 Na-ion batteries are centred around the combinatorial chemical exploration of the fundamental angstrom- to micron-scale structures of layered transition-metal cathodes, and how these multiscale structures change throughout the battery lifetime. Synchrotron x-ray and neutron scattering facilities play a central role in determining the relationship between crystal structure and electrochemical performance. Addressing the combinatorial aspects of cation permutation along with point-by-point measurements of structural transitions over multiple charge and discharge cycles necessitates the development of, and access to, increasingly precise, rapid, high-resolution, in-situ and operando diffraction, spectroscopy, and thermodynamic and electrochemical experiments. For a detailed fundamental understanding of battery behaviour from fabrication to failure, these experimental measurements must be accompanied by rapid computational chemical calculations. Concluding remarks NIB performance has improved substantially over the past decade, and layered P2 | O3 cathode technologies are in leading positions in many of the battery metrics. The close structural similarities between P2 | O3 materials and layered lithium-ion cathodes have helped inform their scientific and commercial development. However, the increased structural complexity of P2 | O3 materials, resulting from the ability of sodium ions to adopt both trigonal prismatic and elongated octahedral coordination, creates many challenges but also offers significant opportunities. The challenges result from the combinatorial complexity of the cation permutations. The opportunities are to develop NIBs that are competitive with the best LIBs. One of the major goals is to ‘go green’ by producing high-performance NIBs, with a minimal carbon footprint, from sustainable and abundant resources. Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge Faradion Ltd. for the opportunity to study its commercial battery systems and work in detail on its layered sodium cathode materials. The authors wish to thank Dr Jerry Barker and Dr Richard Heap in particular, for their productive and illuminating scientific discussions. This work was supported by the Faraday Institution (Grant No. FIRG018). 8PDF Image | 2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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