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Energies 2020, 13, 6216 13 of 19 differences arise among the different electrodes. In fact, the CMC- and PVDF-based electrodes show two features around 0.90 and 0.60 V, respectively, while the Alg-based electrode shows a single evident feature around 0.50 V. The PAA-based electrode shows only a less pronounced shoulder around 0.6 V, mostly overlapped by the sloping baseline. These behaviors can be tentatively attributed to (i) more pronounced surface storage of Na than Li, which extends over a broad potential window below 1 V, and (ii) interfacial SEI formation processes that are partly modified by the different binders E(npeorgsisesib20ly20d, 1u3e, xtFoOtRhePEhEiRghReErVIsEuWrface reactivity and instability commonly found for NIBs with 1r3esopf e2c0t to LIBs) [45,46]. The redox peaks occurring close to the 0.02 cutoff potential in all electrodes can be cutoff potential in all electrodes can be explained by minor Na storage at the edges of carbon layers, explained by minor Na storage at the edges of carbon layers, or Na plating at the hard carbon surface or Na plating at the hard carbon surface (bulk intercalation is not allowed). During the following (bulk intercalation is not allowed). During the following charges and discharges, only reversible charges and discharges, only reversible processes occurring in a very broad potential range between processes occurring in a very broad potential range between 0.02 and 1.50 V are evidenced, signature 0.02 and 1.50 V are evidenced, signature of the reversible surface storage of Na by amorphous carbon. of the reversible surface storage of Na by amorphous carbon. Figure 9. CV profiles, acquired during the first and second cycles, of CGDHC-based NIB electrodes Figure 9. CV profiles, acquired during the first and second cycles, of CGDHC-based NIB electrodes prepared with different binders: (a) Na-carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC); (b) alginate (Alg); (c) polyacrylic prepared with different binders: (a) Na-carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC); (b) alginate (Alg); (c) acid (PAA); (d) poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF). Scan rate 0.05 mV s−1. −1. polyacrylic acid (PAA); (d) poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF). Scan rate 0.05 mV s These results confirm that the electrochemical behavior of NIBs is similar to that of LIBs. These results confirm that the electrochemical behavior of NIBs is similar to that of LIBs. Nevertheless, in addition to the inability to store Na+ ions by intercalation, two further issues may Nevertheless, in addition to the inability to store Na+ ions by intercalation, two further issues may arise: (1) the utilization of aluminum as current collector on the anode that is in contrast with LIBs, arise: (1) the utilization of aluminum as current collector on the anode that is in contrast with LIBs, leading to Al corrosion, and (2) more pronounced sensitivity to water traces [47]. Therefore, selecting leading to Al corrosion, and (2) more pronounced sensitivity to water traces [47]. Therefore, selecting an appropriate binder can play a vital role in NIBs in terms of maintaining mechanical adhesion, an appropriate binder can play a vital role in NIBs in terms of maintaining mechanical adhesion, keeping ionic contact, and facilitating the formation of a stable interface with the electrolyte [30]. keeping ionic contact, and facilitating the formation of a stable interface with the electrolyte [30]. Figure 10 shows the galvanostatic charge/discharge E vs. Q profiles of all electrodes during the first and second cycles. The CGDHC-Alg, CGDHC-PAA, CGDHC-CMC, and CGDHC-PVDF at C/5 in the voltage range between 0.02 and 2.2 V for NIBs in initial cycle deliver discharge capacity (including reversible and irreversible processes) of 250.44, 263.38, 335.52, and 221.33 mAh g−1, respectively. During the second cycle, the CGDHC-Alg, CGDHC-PAA, CGDHC-CMC, and CGDHC- PVDF exhibit reversible discharge capacity of 173.51, 164.84, 152.62, and 115.97 mAh g−1, respectively.PDF Image | Coffee Ground Sustainable Anodes Sodium-Ion Batteries
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