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500 cycles at 10C in the range of 0.01–2.5 V [244]. In that case, the active particles were not a composite, only TiO2 particles, but they were admixed with polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder and acetylene black carbon additive in a weight ratio of 70:20:10 to form the anode. The performance of titanate also depends very much on the type of carbon additive. The incorporation of graphene into Mthaetertiiatlsa2n0a2t0e, 1f3i,lm345s3produced efficient binder-free anodes delivering a reversible capacity of 722m2 oAf 58h g−1 at 5 A g−1 after 10,000 cycles (Figure 9) [245]. Figure 9. (A) Synthesis of free-standing films of sodium titanate nanosheets (NTO) sandwiched Figure 9. (A) Synthesis of free-standing films of sodium titanate nanosheets (NTO) sandwiched between graphene layers from MXene (titanium carbide) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nanosheets. between graphene layers from MXene (titanium carbide) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) (B) Electrochemical performance of the NTO/rGO films for SIBs. (a) Comparison of rate performance nanosheets. (B) Electrochemical performance of the NTO/rGO films for SIBs. (a) Comparison of rate of NTO with different rGO content, rGO and MXene at various current densities. (b) Comparison performance of NTO with different rGO content, rGO and MXene at various current densities. (b) of rate performance of KTO/rGO-10 %, rGO and MXene at various current densities. (c) Long-term Comparison of rate performance of KTO/rGO-10 %, rGO and MXene at various current densities. (c) cycling discharge capacities and Coulombic efficiencies of NTO/rGO-10 % at 5 A·g−1 . Reproduced with Long-term cycling discharge capacities and Coulombic efficiencies of NTO/rGO-10 % at 5 A g−1. permission from [245]. Copyright 2016 Elsevier. Reproduced with permission from [245]. Copyright 2016 Elsevier. 3.2.2. Conversion Reaction Compounds 3.2.2. Conversion Reaction Compounds Conversion reaction compounds are attractive because their capacity of Na-storage is larger Conversion reaction compounds are attractive because their capacity of Na-storage is larger than than that of intercalation compounds. However, it is more difficult to overcome the deterioration of that of intercalation compounds. However, it is more difficult to overcome the deterioration of the the material upon cycling due to the change of volume and structure. Nevertheless, progress has material upon cycling due to the change of volume and structure. Nevertheless, progress has been been done in the recent years, and transition metal oxides are now considered as potential active done in the recent years, and transition metal oxides are now considered as potential active elements elements for sodium ion batteries [246–270]. As a result, while carbon-based anode/TM-oxides cathode for sodium ion batteries [246–270]. As a result, while carbon-based anode/TM-oxides cathode architectures were identified as the most promising in terms of energy density, the alloying-conversion architectures were identified as the most promising in terms of energy density, the alloying- anode/NASICON cathode geometry were identified as the most performing in terms of power conversion anode/NASICON cathode geometry were identified as the most performing in terms of density [36]. power density [36]. a. Iron oxides Fe3O4 is of great interest due to its high theoretical capacity, low cost, and abundance on earth. Core-shell nano-structured Fe3O4@carbonaceous composites can avoid the pulverization of the particles owing to the robust carbon that also improves the kinetics as it is a good electrical conductor. In particular, Liu et al. strongly bound homogeneously dispersed Fe3O4 quantum dots with an average size of 3.8 nm onto hybrid carbon nanosheets. The corresponding anode for sodium-ion cell delivered a capacity of 286–416 mA·h·g−1 at 0.1–2.0 A·g−1. At current density of 1.0 A·g−1, a capacity of 252 mA·h·g−1 was still obtained after 1000 cycles [258]. Mesoporous Fe3 O4 @nitrogen-doped carbon yolk-shellPDF Image | Electrode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries
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