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Molecules 2022, 27, 6516 5 of 32 Table 2. Electrochemical performance of anodes synthesized from different raw materials. Organic polymers Biomass source Resin carbon Raw Material Sugarcane bagasse Sucrose Cellulose Ordered cellulose nanocrystals Lignocellulose (peanut shell) Mango powder Shaddock peel Apricot shell Natural cotton Algae Phenolic resin 3-aminophenol /formaldehyde resins Electrochemical Performance * (Capacity Performance and Cycling Stability) ~290 mAh g−1 at 0.03 A g−1, 94% of capacity retention after 300 cycles. 361 mAh g−1 at 0.02 A g−1, 93.4% of capacity retention after 100 cycles. ~300 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C, an average capacity loss of 0.047%/cycle. 340 mAh g−1 at 0.1 A g−1, 88.5% of capacity retention after 400 cycles. 348 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C, 81.3% of capacity retention after 120 cycles. ~520 mAh g−1 at 0.02 A g−1, ~204 mAh g−1 retained after 1000 cycles at 1 A g−1. 430.5 mAh g−1 at 0.03 A g−1, 97.5% of capacity retention after 200 cycles. ~400 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C, 91.9% of capacity retention after 300 cycles. 315 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C, 96.8% of capacity retention after 100 cycles. 340 mAh g−1 at 0.025 A g−1, 160~170 mAh g−1 retained after 50 cycles. 311 mAh g−1 at 0.02 A g−1, more than 80% of capacity retention after 100 cycles. 360 mAh g−1 at 0.03 A g−1, 86.1% of capacity retention after 100 cycles. Ref. [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [52] [53] * Half-cell electrochemical measurements vs. Na/Na+. 3.2. Structure of HC Thermosetting precursors can undergo solid phase carbonization during pyrolysis. Other elements in the precursor are separated from the structure in the form of gases, and the organic molecules in the interior are fully crosslinked and hard to rearrange, making it difficult to achieve graphitization. However, the carbonaceous materials generated by thermoplastic precursors during carbonization will be affected by the residuals, such as hydrogen and oxygen, and the basic structural units of the thermoplastic precursors will rearrange to form parallel structures that are amenable to graphitization [55], as shown in Figure 2. In the case of carbohydrates, all the H and O evaporate as water, leaving a highly crosslinked network of carbons to form HC. On the contrary, in the pyrolysis process of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), H and Cl will be released in the form of hydrochloric acid gas, Molecules 2022, 27, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 34 and the remaining hydrogen will lead to the formation of hydrocarbons, which remain at a relatively high density to benefit the graphitization and eventually form soft carbon. Figure 2. Schematic representation of the carbonization process during the pyrolysis of thermoset- Figure 2. Schematic representation of the carbonization process during the pyrolysis of thermosetting ting and thermoplastic organic precursors [55]. and thermoplastic organic precursors [55]. X-ray diffraction (XRD) is utilized to investigate the crystal structures of carbon X-ray diffraction (XRD) is utilized to investigate the crystal structures of carbon materials as shown in Figure 3a. All three carbon materials caused a distinct current materials as shown in Figure 3a. All three carbon materials caused a distinct current signal signal at about 2θ◦ = 25°, and the main XRD peak of graphite is 26◦.5°, which corresponds at about 2θ = 25 , and the main XRD peak of graphite is 26.5 , which corresponds to the to the characteristic peak of the graphite (002) crystal face. The (002) peak of soft carbon characteristic peak of the graphite (002) crystal face. The (002) peak of soft carbon deviates deviates to a lower angle and is wider than that of graphite, indicating that the soft car- bon forms a crystal area. Its crystallinity is not as good as graphite and the layer spacing is relatively large. Similarly, the (002) peak of HC is obviously lower in angle and larger in width, because the strong crosslinking interaction prevents the carbon layer from slipping during the pyrolysis process and generates graphite sheets with a higher degreePDF Image | Hard Carbons as Anodes in Sodium-Ion Batteries
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