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Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 3529 20 of 29 based solutions in a wide temperature range from −50 ◦C to 80 ◦C, as shown in Figure 11b. It is proven that there is no obvious heat flow in both low or high temperatures, indicating that the sugar-based solution has the potential to be the electrolyte and their freezing points are all below −50 ◦C. In the group of Wu Zhongshuai et al. [76], a planar aqueous sodium-ion micro-battery was introduced in the water-in-salt electrolyte. The water-in-salt electrolyte matched perfectly with the NVP-based anode and cathode, which delivered a favorable voltage window of 2.7 V versus Na+/Na at an extremely low temperature of −50 ◦C. The system has already exhibited satisfactory stability in long-term cycling. After 1000 cycles at room temperature, it exhibited a capacity retention of 88%. Meanwhile, at −40 ◦C, its coulombic efficiency is still above 99% because of the interdigital in-plane geometry system. 4.4. Solid-State Electrolytes Liquid electrolytes have safety hazards and flammability risks when vehicles are hit or the temperature rises sharply which has been leaked in lithium-ion battery energy vehicles. The lithium-ion battery car combustion incidents that have occurred in recent years have brought people’s concerns back to battery safety. Furthermore, the higher viscosity of the electrolyte at low temperatures causes more severe polarization, which is an important reason for the electrochemical performance degradation of liquid electrolytes. Thus, solid- state sodium batteries (SSIBs) have emerged as an attractive choice to solve these problems. Maowen Xu et al. [77] prepared a polymer-based solid-state sodium electrolyte (PFSA-Na membranes) by dissolving the PFSA-Na powder in N, N-dimethyl-formamide. As shown in Figure 11f, PFSA-Na was obtained by a facile ionic exchange method, replacing Li+ at the end of the chain by Na+. Then, after stirring to a homogeneous solution, EC/DEC with 1 M NaClO4 was added. After stirring, the PFSA-Na membranes were finally obtained by a facile solution blade coating method. PFSA-Na membranes demonstrated high ionic conductivity of 4.88*10−5 S/cm even at −15 ◦C. Assembled with Prussian blue, the half-cell showed superior specific capacities of 100 mAh/g at −5 ◦C, 93 mAh/g at −15 ◦C, and 80 mAh/g at −20 ◦C at a rate of 1 C. They also tested the low-temperature characteristics of the PFSA-Na electrolyte and reported the ideal electrochemical performance of the PFSA-Na membrane (PFSA-Na powder dissolved in DMF and added with 1 M NaClO4 in EC/DEC). Figure 12a shows that PFSA-Na has a conductivity of 4.82*10−5 S/cm, which is very similar to that of Xu’s work. Assembled with the polyanionic cathode Na3V2O2(PO4)2F and the PFSA electrolyte, the cell shows a highly reversible sodium-ion extraction–insertion process, resulting in remarkable low-temperature electrochemical performance. Meanwhile, due to the perfect match among the NASICON cathode and the PFSA-Na membrane, the system shows limited polarization. The half-cell delivered suitable discharge capacities, high voltage, and stable low-temperature performance, as mentioned in the cathode part. In another group, Guanglei Cui et al. [78] reported a new process to synthesize the quasi-solid electrolyte, with poly(methyl vinyl ether-alt-maleic anhydride) (P(MVE- alt-MA)) as the host, including three steps. First, they dissolved P(MVE-alt-MA) into acetonitrile to form the host of the electrolyte. Then, they poured the solution into a dry bacterial cellulose (BC) for reinforcement. When it dried out, they cut it into circles and soaked it in the 1 M NaClO4/TEP-VC electrolyte which acted as a plasticizer. Finally, the target electrolyte was obtained. It was proven that Na dendrites, which seriously impact SEI formation, are hindered by quasi-solid P(MVE-alt-MA) electrolytes. Moreover, the investigation elucidated that it could promote the synthesis of an interface between the NVP cathode and the electrolyte, which suppressed the vanadium’s dissolution and en- hanced the batteries’ safety. Therefore, when assembled with the NVP anode, the half-cell exhibited stable electrochemical performance in low temperatures. A 70 mAh/g spe- cific capacity was achieved at −10 ◦C with a retention capacity of 84.8% after 50 cycles at 0.1 C, as shown in Figure 12b. In addition, Zhong-Shuai Wu et al. [79] applied photopoly- merization to develop an ethoxylated trimethylolpropane triacrylate-based quasi-solid-state electrolyte (QSSE). The QSSE is obtained by mixing 1 M NaClO4 in the PC and 5% FEC intoPDF Image | Na Ion Batteries Used at Low Temperatures
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