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Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 3529 22 of 29 cross-linked with Al2O3 nanoparticles (Figure 12e,f), which exhibits a porous 3D structure with dramatically enhanced low-temperature electrochemistry. Compared with liquid electrolyte, it is reported that QSSE has superior electrochemical performance and more favorable stability during a series of temperature changes in SIBs. Furthermore, the QSSE facilitates the fast ionic migration of both anions and cations. Thus, sandwiched by the graphite cathode and the Sn anode, the full cell showed specific capacities of 65 mAh/g at −5 ◦C and 45 mAh/g at −20 ◦C with rate of 5 C. Moreover, Chengdu Liang et al. [82] devised a 3D superionic conductor Na3SbS4 solid electrolyte model to investigate a con- ductive mechanism, as shown in Figure 12g. Because of the great structural stability with the 3D conductive tunnel network, the ionic conductivity would only slightly drop in an extreme low-temperature environment. Therefore, at −20 ◦C, Na3SbS4 was reported to hold an ionic conductivity of 2*10−4 S/cm, which is the highest among the most reported solid electrolytes, as shown in Figure 12h. In the end of this section, we list the electrolytes mentioned above in Table 1. Table 1 compares the conductivities of all the above-mentioned electrolytes at low temperatures, the specific capacities, and the number of battery cycles. Electrolytes always easily undergo phase change and more complex interface evolution at low temperatures, leading to a decrease in the cycle stability of the battery. Therefore, the number of working cycles of the battery was taken as an important index. As the research proceeds, a combination of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte of sodium-ion battery is being constantly improved. Even at low temperatures, most of the electrolyte systems have an ionic conductivity of 10−3~10−4 S/cm, comparable to that of the electrolyte or commercial diaphragm system at normal temperatures. These electrolytes into the batteries show ideal electrical proper- ties and stability. Moreover, some of SIBs have the capacity retention of more than 80% after 500 cycles, showing the application potential of sodium-ion batteries at low temper- atures. The NaClO4- and NaPF6-based organic electrolytes are widely used in practical applications. Compared to the conventional organic electrolyte, the current research on aqueous electrolytes, ionic liquid electrolytes, and quasi-solid and solid electrolytes at low temperatures is just focused on ionic conductivity. Therefore, later research should focus more on the practical application of electrolytes, such as the adaptability of electrolytes with a cathode and anode at low temperatures. Meanwhile, the evolution of interfaces between different polymer skeletons, solvent molecules, and electrodes is so complex at low temperatures, making it necessary to structurally characterize and systematically understand SEI films.PDF Image | Na Ion Batteries Used at Low Temperatures
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