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Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science 16 (2012) 168–177 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cossms Sodium and sodium-ion energy storage batteries Brian L. Ellis, Linda F. Nazar ⇑ University of Waterloo, Department of Chemistry, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1 article info Article history: Available online 26 April 2012 Keywords: Energy storage Sodium ion batteries Sodium batteries Solid state chemistry Energy materials Grid storage 1. Introduction Energy storage has become a growing global concern over the past decade as a result of increased energy demand, combined with drastic increases in the price of refined fossil fuels and the environ- mental consequences of their use. This has increased the call for environmentally responsible alternative sources for both energy generation and storage. Although wind and solar generated elec- tricity is becoming increasingly popular in several industrialized countries, these sources provide intermittent energy; thus energy storage systems are required for load-leveling, i.e., storage of en- ergy until needed by the electrical grid. Portable energy solutions that realize the practical use of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and purely electric vehi- cles (EVs) will further reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Lithium-ion batteries, the most common type of secondary (rechargeable) cells found in almost all portable electronic devices, are a possible solution to these larger global concerns [1]. Lithium- based electrochemistry offers several appealing attributes: lithium is the lightest metallic element and has a very low redox potential (EðLiþ =LiÞ 1⁄4 3:04 V versus standard hydrogen electrode), which en- ables cells with high voltage and high energy density. Furthermore, Li+ has a small ionic radius which is beneficial for diffusion in ⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: lfnazar@uwaterloo.ca (L.F. Nazar). 1359-0286/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cossms.2012.04.002 abstract Owing to almost unmatched volumetric energy density, Li-ion batteries have dominated the portable electronics industry and solid state electrochemical literature for the past 20 years. Not only will that continue, but they are also now powering plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles. In light of possible concerns over rising lithium costs in the future, Na and Na-ion batteries have re-emerged as candidates for medium and large-scale stationary energy storage, especially as a result of heightened interest in renewable energy sources that provide intermittent power which needs to be load-levelled. The sodium-ion battery field presents many solid state materials design challenges, and rising to that call in the past couple of years, several reports of new sodium-ion technologies and electrode materials have surfaced. These range from high-temperature air electrodes to new layered oxides, polyanion-based materials, carbons and other insertion materials for sodium-ion batteries, many of which hold promise for future sodium-based energy storage applications. In this article, the challenges of current high-tem- perature sodium technologies including Na-S and Na-NiCl2 and new molten sodium technology, Na-O2 are summarized. Recent advancements in positive and negative electrode materials suitable for Na-ion and hybrid Na/Li-ion cells are reviewed, along with the prospects for future developments. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. solids. Coupled with its long cycle life and rate capability, these properties have enabled Li-ion technology to capture the portable electronics market. The demand for lithium-ion batteries as a major power source in portable electronic devices and vehicles is rapidly increasing: lithium-ion batteries are regarded as the battery of choice for pow- ering future generations of HEV and PHEVs. With the likelihood of enormous demands on available global lithium resources, concerns over lithium supply – but mostly its cost – have arisen. Many glo- bal lithium reserves are located in remote or in politically sensitive areas [2,3]. Even if extensive battery recycling programs were established, it is possible that recycling could not prevent this re- source depletion in time. Furthermore, increasing lithium utiliza- tion in medium-scale automotive batteries will ultimately push up the price of lithium compounds, thereby making large-scale storage prohibitively expensive. With sodium’s high abundance and low cost, and very suitable redox potential (EðNaþ =NaÞ 1⁄4 2:71 V versus standard hydrogen elec- trode; only 0.3 V above that of lithium), rechargeable electrochem- ical cells based on sodium also hold much promise for energy storage applications. The report of a high-temperature solid-state sodium ion conductor – sodium b00-alumina (NaAl11O17) – almost 50 years ago spawned tremendous interest both in the field of solid state ionics and sodium electrochemistry [4]. This material became the electrolyte/separator that was key to the development of two battery types that are commercially available: sodium sulfur (Na–S) and ZEBRA (Zero-Emission Battery Research Activities) cellsPDF Image | Sodium and sodium-ion energy storage batteries
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