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separator failure, reaction of the molten sodium with the sulfur catholyte can result in a toxic, highly exothermic fire capable of inducing thermal runaway in a large-scale system. Great efforts have been put toward engineering housing materials, their coatings, and sealing materials that are resistant to such corrosion along with additional cell designs to further limit exothermic runaway conditions in the event of a separator failure or short circuit. In fact, since a “fire incident” at the NAS Tsukuba Plant (Joso City, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan) in September of 2011 [4], there have been no recognized large-scale fires from this technology. Unfortunately, the engineering solutions required to address the high temperature materials requirements and the improved safety of the system contribute to a relatively high cost of these batteries. Current costs are estimated between $600-700 /kWh with projections that costs could drop to less than $500 /kWh by 2025 [5]. Although these “up-front” capital expenditure (CAPEX) costs are relatively higher than current Li-ion or lead-acid (Pb-acid) alternatives, the long duration discharge, minimal maintenance, and extended cycle life of these systems should make them more attractive for long-term applications where the costs can be amortized over the lifetime of the system. 2.2. Sodium-Nickel Chloride Batteries As summarized in Table 1, Na-NiCl2 batteries share many of the positive attributes of the NaS systems, with favorable energy densities, long cycle lives, long calendar lives with little or no maintenance, and good round trip efficiencies. Again, although these batteries operate near 270°C, they can be used in environments with significantly variable ambient temperatures (-40°C to +60°C) [2]. Importantly, though, Na-NiCl2 batteries are considered to be “inherently” safer than their NaS counterparts; reactions between the molten salt and the molten sodium anode do not yield runaway exothermic behavior, produce toxic byproducts, or generate hazardous volatile species. Battery manufacturer FZSoNick recently announced that their Na-NiCl2 battery systems (Figure3) were UL 9540A certified (Test Method for Evaluating Thermal Runaway Fire Propagation in Battery Energy Storage Systems), attesting to their relative inherent fire safety. FZSoNick also advertises that these batteries are considered to be non-hazardous and fully recyclable. It should be noted that molten sodium batteries, as a class, often elicit concerns related to the strong reactivity of metallic sodium with air and water. These concerns can be significantly addressed, however, through proper packaging and sealing of the cells to prevent environmental exposure. Moreover, for issues such as battery assembly or shipping, large volumes of metallic sodium need not necessarily be handled if the batteries are assembled and/or shipped in the discharged state. 5 Chapter 4 Sodium-Based Battery TechnologiesPDF Image | SODIUM-BASED BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES CH 4
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