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Sodium-ion batteries present and future

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Review Article Chem Soc Rev Fig. 26 (a) Cycling performances of thick-film electrodes consisting of Ti1􏰣xNbxO2 with rutile and anatase structure in Na cell. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 326, Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society.) (b) Long-term cycling performance of G–TiO2(B) electrode at a current density of 500 mA g􏰣1. Inset image represent the illustration of partially bonded graphene–TiO2-B (001) interface. (Reproduced by permission from ref. 331, Nature Publishing Group, Copyright 2015.) (c) Charge–discharge voltage curves of TiO2, TiO2-F, and TiO2-F on CNT at 0.1C-rate. (Reprinted from ref. 312, Copyright 2015, with permission from Elsevier.) (d) Rate capability of TiO2 and S-TiO2 at various C-rate. (Reproduced from ref. 323 with permission, Copyright 2016 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.) View Article Online Chen et al. proposed a chemically bonded graphene (G)–TiO2(B) composite as a long-cycle life material. Kinetics analysis reveals Na+ intercalation pseudo-capacitive behaviour in the G–TiO2 sodium cell, which is highly beneficial to fast charge storage and long-term cyclability331 (Fig. 26b). Doping to reduce the average oxidation state of Ti is another interesting strategy to enhance the reversible Na storage per- formances of TiO2.312,313,315,323 Hwang et al. reported ultrafast sodium storage performance in fluorine-doped anatase TiO2 nanoparticles embedded on carbon nanotubes312 (Fig. 26c). Nanosized anatase TiO2 partially doped with fluorine (TiO2􏰣dFd) to form electro-conducting trivalent Ti3+ led to facile Na+ inser- tion into an anatase TiO2 structure. In addition, TiO2􏰣dFd was modified by electro-conducting carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to further enhance the electric conductivity. Boron doping can also enhance the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 due to or partly due to the formation of Ti3+ ions induced by oxygen vacancies which can increase the conductivity of TiO2.315 Recently, Wang et al. prepared B-doped TiO2 via the facile hydrothermal method and demonstrated a high reversible capacity of 150 mA h g􏰣1 at a high current rate of 2C with stable cycling performance for over 400 cycles.313 Ni et al. introduced self-supported S-doped TiO2 nanotubes with high electronic conductivity323 (Fig. 26d). When S is incorporated into TiO2, the S 3p states will be partially delocalized. The S 3p states can contribute to the formation of the valence band, and thus increases the width of the valence band, resulting in a decreased band gap energy (S-TiO2: 2.6 eV, TiO2: 3.0 eV).334 The high conductivity assisted in decreasing the band gap energy, which enabled delivery of a high capacity of 320 mA h g􏰣1 at 33.5 mA g􏰣1 with a stable capacity retention of 91% for over 4400 cycles at a high current density of 3.35 A g􏰣1. 3.1.2.2. Lithium titanate. A spinel Li4Ti5O12 has been extensively studied as one of the most promising anode materials for long-life stationary LIBs because it has a flat and high potential around 1.5 V (vs. Li/Li+) during charge and discharge and an excellent cycle life due to the negligible volume change.335 Recently, Zhao et al. revisited spinel Li4Ti5O12 as a Na+ insertion host material for SIBs300,336 3568 | Chem. Soc. Rev., 2017, 46, 3529--3614 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2017 Open Access Article. Published on 28 March 2017. Downloaded on 7/1/2019 3:41:21 AM. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported Licence.

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