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Batteries 2022, 8, 108 L/A was calculated to be 317 m−1. The measured electrolyte conductivities are displayed in Figure 2 and increase with temperature as expected [32]. The conductivity at 80 °C is approximately three times that at 10 °C (Table S1) linked to increasing Na+/ClO4− dissoci- ation and decreasing electrolyte viscosity [33]. Holding electrolytes around 20 °C over- night results in some colourless crystals being precipitated, possibly due to EC precipita- tion (Figure S2). That could result in lower electrolyte conductivity at a lower temperature than that shown in Figure 2. −3 −3 Figure 2..VVarairaitaiotinoninitnhethceoncdouncdtiuvcitiyvoitfyao1fmao1l dmol NdmaClON4 ianC1l:O1 ECin/D1E:1C EelCec/tDroElyCteewleictthrotelymte- perature. ++ at a series of temperatures with a pottentiial off 22Vvvss. . Naa /Naa and a 10 mV amplitude (Figure 3). A fresh cell was used for each measurement. The equivalent electric circuit components include an uncompensated resistance (Rs),, charge transfer resistance (Rct)),, double layer ccaappaaccitiatannccee(C(Cdld)l,),rerseisitsatnacneceanadncdapcapciatacintcaencoef tohfe tshoelidsoelliedcterloelcyttreoilnyterpinhtaesre- + p(RhSaEsIea(nRdSECI aSnEId)aCnSdEI)aaWndarabuWrgaribmuprgedimanpced(aZnWce)c(ZorWr)escporornedspinogndtoindgiftfousdiiofnfuosifoNnaofiNonas through the electrolyte (Figure 3b) [20,34]. EIS data collected with newly assembled sodium ions through the electrolyte (Figure 3b) [20,34]. EIS data collected with newly assembled with temperature. HC-sodium half-cellls were tested by electrochemicall impedance specttroscopy (EIIS)) half-cells at 2 V should result in information on the unsodiated HC surfaces. Furthermore, sodium half-cells at 2 V should result in information on the unsodiated HC surfaces. Fur- the majority of the SEI layer should form around 1 V in a sodium half-cell [10], so a very thin thermore, the majority of the SEI layer should form around 1 V in a sodium half-cell [10], SEI layer should be present in this testing and the R and C in the equivalent electric so a very thin SEI layer should be present in this testiSnEgI and thSEeIRSEI and CSEI in the equiv- circuit can be ignored (Figure 3a). The Nyquist plots are composed of one semicircle in the alent electric circuit can be ignored (Figure 3a). The Nyquist plots are composed of one high-frequency region corresponding to R , C and an inclined line in the low-frequency ct dl semicircle in the high-frequency region corresponding to Rct, Cdl and an inclined line in region indicating Z [25]. It is obvious that the semicircle becomes smaller when increasing the low-frequencyWregion indicating ZW [25]. It is obvious that the semicircle becomes temperature and the smallest semicircle is seen at 80 ◦C. R , R , exchange current (I ) and sct 0 smaller when increasing temperature and the smallest semicircle is seen at 80 °C. Rs, Rct, heterogeneous rate constant (Ks) are listed in Table 1. I0 and Ks can be described with the exchange current (I0) and heterogeneous rate constant (Ks) are listed in Table 1. I0 and Ks Butler–Volmer equation [35]: can be described with the Butler–Volmer equation [35]: I0 = RT/nFRct (2) 𝐼 𝑅𝑇⁄𝑛𝐹𝑅 (2) Ks = I0/nFAC (3) 𝐾 𝐼⁄𝑛𝐹𝐴𝐶 (3) where R is the ideal gas constant (8.314 J K−1 mol−1), T is the absolute temperature, −1 −1 wnhisertehRenisutmhebiedreoaflgealescctroonnsstapnetr(8m.3o14leJcuKlemduorlin)g,Toixsidthiseaatbiosno,luFteisteFmapraedratyu’rsec,onnisttahnet −1 2 n(9u6m,4b8e5r.3oCfemleocltro)n,sApiesrthmeosluecrufalceedaurreianogfotxhiedeisleactitorond,eF(i0s.9F5arcamda)y,’asncdonCsitsanthte(9c6o,n4c8e5n.3trCa- −1 −3−32 mtionlo)f,sAodisiuthmeisounrsfa(1ce×ar1e0aofmthoelcemlectr)o.dRei(n0c.9r5eacsmes)w,ahnednrCedisutchinegcotenmcepnetrattuiorendoufesoto- −3 −3 othuesllyardgeessctricbheadncgheaingtehseinbcaottnedryucattivloitwy otfetmheperleactturroel,yitnec. Hreoawsinevge1r0, R-fcot lpdofsrsoemsse2s5thtoe l5argC-, ◦ from 41.9 Ω at 25 ◦C to 1.94 Ω at 80 ◦C with corresponding increases in I0 and Ks. Hence, an easier charge transfer is expected as the temperature rises. s dthiuempreiovniosu(s1ly×d1e0scrmiboeldccmhan).gRes inccroenasdeuscwtivhietynorfedthueceinlegctreomlypte.raHtuorweedvuere, Rto tphoespseressvei-s ct ewshtichaningdeicinatethsesmbatltleryIatanlodwKtetmhpaneratu2r5e,Cin.cIrnecarseinasgin1g0-tfhoeldtefmropmer2a5tutore5re°dCu,cweshiRch 0s ct 4 5 of 16 ◦ +PDF Image | Temperature Dependence of Hard Carbon Sodium Half-Cells
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