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s 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16 indicates smaller I0 and Ks than at 25 °C. Increasing the temperature reduces Rct from 41.9 Batteries 2022, 8, 108 6 of 16 emperature (°C) 5 10 15 20 25 40 50 60 70 80 Rs (Ω) 11.2 9.64 8.54 7.63 8.51 7.25 7.24 6.55 6.18 5.92 Rct (Ω) Temperature (◦C) 5 10 15 20 25 40 50 60 70 80 Rs (Ω) 11.2 9.64 8.54 7.63 8.51 7.25 7.24 6.55 6.18 5.92 I0 (μA) Rct (Ω) 5.46 × 10−5 Ks (cm s−1) I0 (μA) Ω at 25 °C to 1.94 Ω at 80 °C with corresponding increases in I0 and Ks. Hence, an easier charge transfer is expected as the temperature rises. Figure 3. Equivalent circuit model of (a) fresh sodium half cells and (b) sodium half cells cycled at Figure 3. Equivalent circuit model of (a) fresh sodium half cells and (b) sodium half cells cycled at 100 mA g−1 and (c) Nyqu−is1t plots of HC electrode at various temperature from 5 °C to 80 °C and◦ ◦ 100 mA g and (c) Nyquist plots of HC electrode at various temperature from 5 C to 80 frequency from 100 kHz to 0.1 HZ, with the high frequency part expanded in the inset. Table 1. HC sodium half-cell resistance at several temperatures measured by EIS. Table 1. HC sodium half-cell resistance at several temperatures measured by EIS. frequency from 100 kHz to 0.1 HZ, with the high frequency part expanded in the inset. 1.57 × 10−2 Galvanostatic cyc◦ling data for a series of half-cells ◦measured at temperatures from−10 6.13 × 10−4 −3 1.72 × 10 −5 −5 4.18 × 10−5 15−.37 1.72 × 10 1.88 × 10 1.88 × 10 9.61 × 10−5 3.83 × 10−3 8.81 × 10−3 8.81 × 10 −3 −5 9.61 × 1−02 −4 −4 1.19 × 10 −2 −2−4 1.71 × 10−4 41.9 6.13 × 10−4 7.27 3.83 × 10−3 4.18 × 10−5 3.26 2.48 1.19 × 10 1.30 × 10 1.30 × 10 1.71 × 10 1.57 × 10 Galvanostatic cycling data for a series of half-cells measured at temperatures from 10 to 80 C are shown in Figure 4. At 25 C, HC provides a 300 mA h g initial capacity to 80 °C are shown in Figure 4. At 25 °C, HC provides a 300 mA h−1g−1 initial capacity 1.94 3.132.4×1 ×1010 C and Ks (cm s−1) 5.96 × 10−7 1.08 × 10−6 −6 −6 6.69 × 10−6 439 246 142 80.9 41.9 15.7 7.27 3.26 2.48 1.94 5.96 × 10−7 9.92 × 10−5 9.92 × 10−5 1.75 × 10 −4 −6 1.91 × 1−04 1.91 × 10 3.41 × 10 −4 3.12×180.9 −4−6 6.69 × 10−6 439 5.46 × 10−5 1.08 × 10−6 246 142 1.75 × 10 (Figure S3). Over the first three cycles with 100 mA g current, the reduction capacity (Figure S3). Over the first three cycles with 100 mA g−1 current, the reduction capacity (corresponding to discharge capacity of the anode in a SIB) rapidly dropped to circa 250 mA (corresponding to−1discharge capacity of the anode in a SIB) rapidly dro−p1ped to circa 250 h g , and then gradually decreased further to 239 mA h g after 20 cycles. The oxidation mA h g−1, and then gradually decreased further to 239 mA h g−1 a−ft1er 20 cycles. The oxida- capacity (Figure S4) reduces by less than 15 mA h g over 20 cycles. The initial Coulombic efficiency (oxidation capacity divided by reduction capacity) is 83%, and that rises to 99.3% after 20 cycles (Figure S5). When the temperature is below 25 ◦C, there is a significant capacity drop. At 10 or 15 ◦C, less than 40% of the initial capacity was retained after 20 cycles (Figures S3–S5). The battery at 10 ◦C displays a significant drop in capacity over the first few cycles, but becomes stable after 9 cycles. The capacity drops may be due to the TPDF Image | Temperature Dependence of Hard Carbon Sodium Half-Cells
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