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Allis and Moore The occurrence of laterally extensive, high (stratigraphic) permeability and hydrostatic pressure at depths of 3 to 7 km in the carbonate examples discussed above contrasts with the over-pressured fractures and the challenges associated with the hydraulic fracturing necessary to develop a viable EGS reservoir at 3 – 5 km depth in the Paralana and Habanero projects of South Australia (Bendall et al., 2014). The large reservoir volumes required for large-scale geothermal power favors reservoirs with laterally extensive, naturally high permeability andvery likely, pressures that are close to hydrostatic. Dolomites may be the fa- vored lithology because they are stronger than limestones, and the dolomitization process creates porosity, which is the main reason they have become a reservoir target for oil and gas exploration in recent years (Davies and Smith, 2006). Production Well Flow Rates Geothermal production wells require high flow rates, espe- cially if the target reservoir is deep (3 – 4 km), and minimizing wellfield costs is essential for an economic project. Wells that are capable of generating 5 – 10 MWe need to have hot water flow rates of about 100 L/s, equivalent to about 300 tonnes/hour, 50,000 barrels/day (50 kbpd), or 1600 U.S. gallons per minute (gpm). While pumps can handle such flow rates if the permeability is sufficient, it is rare that oil production from a single well reaches the 50 kbpd level. Petroleum exploration experts are sometimes sceptical that such flow rates are reasonable. Jones, (2013) has summarized characteristic flow rates per oil well from around the world in 2011 and 2012, where they were reported (Figure 4a). Indeed, only wells in Hibernia field offshore from eastern Canada had flow rates of 50 kbpd. The uncontrolled flow rate after the 0.001 0.01 0.1 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Permeability (mD) 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 target for stratigraphic reservoirs (a(a) Basin fill Carbonate rocks Igneous rocks Siliciclastic rocks (b) Figure 3a. Compilation of permeability measurements documented in oil exploration (Dept. of Energy Gas In- formation System - GASIS) and groundwater databases for the Great Basin and Rocky Mountain regions (Kirby, 2012), split by lithology. The ellipse highlights the measurements in the depth range of interest (3 - 4 km) for stratigraphic geothermal reservoirs. Figure 3b. Two examples of pressure and temperature trends from deep basins in and adjacent to the Rocky Mountains region, where high permeability Mississippian carbonate (Leadville-Madison) is encountered be- tween 5 – 7 km depth, and temperatures are between 210 and 240°C (modified from Wilson et al., 2003). blowout of the Macondo well in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 has been as- sessed by diverse groups of experts at 50 – 70 kpd (McNutt et al., 2012). Oil flow rates and hot water flow rates cannot be directly compared because of the effects of viscosity. Flow rates are inversely constrained by fluid viscosity, which is well- determined in the case of hot water, but can be highly variable in the case of oil. Oil viscosity varies with composition, temperature, dissolved gas (and bubble point) and pressure (Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2013). For the general comparison purposes here, the spread in oil viscosity due to several factors has been shown in Figure 4b together with the variation in water viscosity with temperature. Conservatively assuming that hot water and oil at typical reservoir conditions have a 10-fold viscosity difference allows the oil flow rate histogram in Figure 4a to be converted to the equivalent flow of hot water per well (Figure 4c; flow rates converted to liters/ second). This shows that fields in several areas around the world have reservoir permeabilities sufficent to support the high flow rates needed for geothermal production wells (if 1012 Depth (m)PDF Image | Can Deep Stratigraphic Reservoirs Sustain 100 MW Power Plants
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