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their reservoir temperatures were high enough). Put another way, oil wells with sustained production rates of about 5 kbpd and typi- cal oil fluid properties have reservoir conditions that would also sustain good geothermal wells if the temperature is 150 - 200°C. The tight oil (and gas) fields presently being developed in the U.S. with horizontal drilling and extensive hydrofracturing typi- cally have initial flow rates of about 1 kbpd, decreasing to a small fraction of this after 2 years (Hicks, 2013). The low permeability regimes being stimulated here for oil production are clearly not suitable for geothermal production wells. Scale of Power Developments The relatively deep target for stratigraphic reservoirs of 3 – 4 km, and potentially high well field costs requires compensating sav- ings in other cost factors. Large developments (~100 MWe) allow economies of scale with factors such as the permitting, transmission line, and mobilization of drilling rigs. Drilling costs in the Bakken tight oil play (North Dakota) have been reduced by at least 20% because of the known, predictable geology and drilling conditions in the sedimentary environment, and other factors such as collocated wells on the same drill pad and “walkable” rigs (Hicks, 2013). That same predictability applies to stratigraphic geothermal reservoirs, so that once one or two confirmation wells have identified the thermal gradient, the permeability target, and the optimal drilling strategy and well-field design, grid-drilling is possible. The relatively wide well-spacing for injectors and producers (500 – 700 m for reservoirs with 10 Darcy-m transmissivity and wells pumped at 2000 gpm), may mean modular developments of ~30 MWe are more cost-effective than one large, central power plant. Using the long-term power density of 3 MWe/km2 (Deo et al., 2014), a 30 MWe development will have a well-field of about 10 km2 (4 miles2). Since many of the basins in the Great Basin are ~103 km2 in area, large scale power developments are possible—if the reservoir characteristics can be proven over a 1 km2 area, there is a very good chance the reservoir will have the same characteristics over 100 km2. To illustrate this, we show an example from eastern Nevada where the several wildcat oil exploration wells in the early 1980s have proven that attractive temperatures and also good permeabil- ity exist in carbonate units at about 3 km depth (Figure 5; details in Allis at al., 2012). North Steptoe Valley is situated between the Cherry Creek and Schell Creek ranges. The valley (basin) has an 89°C spring near its southern end, and a 65°C spring adjacent to its western range-front. Shell Oil (Shell-1) and Placid Oil (well 17-14) drilled in the center of the valley, and confirmed 2 km of valley fill and predominantly Paleozoic carbonates and shale to at least 3566 m depth. The temperature between 3 and 3.5 km depth ranges between 170 and 200°C. Four carbonate units, the Guilmette Formation, Simonson Dolomite, Sevy Dolomite, and Ely Springs Dolomite, are known elsewhere to have characteristi- Figure 4. (a) Compilation of available data on oil well production in fields around the world with publicly available data (Jones, 2013). (b) Trends in dynamic viscosity with fluid temperature for water and oil with varying composition and fluid characteristics (Society of Petroleum Enegineering, 2013). (c) Oil flow data from (a) converted to equivalent flow of 200°C water assuming the hot water has a viscosity one tenth that of oil. The red dashed line is the flow rate required for a 5 MWe well assuming 10% conversion efficiency, and a 75°C injection temperature. This shows the productivity of wells in the five oil regions with highest productivity would also support high flow-rate geothermal wells if the reservoir temperature was 200°C. Allis and Moore (a) 0 50 100 150 200 250 0.1 1 Dynamic Viscosity (cP) 10 100 1000 typical oil reservoirs water (b) stratigraphic geothermal reservoir crude oil (low viscosity, high solution gas at bubble point) crude oil (low viscosity, no gas) crude oil (high viscosity, no gas) 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Equivalent Hot Water Flow Rate (2012 oil production) (c) Flow rate required for 5 MWe geothermal well with 200°C production water (1800 gpm) 1013 Average Well Flow Rate (L/s) Reservoir Temperature ( C)PDF Image | Can Deep Stratigraphic Reservoirs Sustain 100 MW Power Plants
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