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Table 2: Classification of Electric Propulsion Architectures Architecture Conventional All-Electric Turboelectric Series Hybrid Parallel Hybrid HP HE Diagram 0 0 1 1 2a >0 0 2b 1 <1 2c <1 <1 2d Hybrid electric configurations are broadly similar to hybrid automobiles but have some important distinctions. Non-plug-in hybrids like the Toyota Prius generate elec- trical power only through regenerative braking. For transport-class aircraft, regener- ating power during descent is less efficient than using a non-regenerative continuous descent trajectory [17, 18]. Proposed hybrid aircraft concepts operate more like the plug-in hybrid Chevrolet Volt, where electricity from grid power may be used for short trips and fuel is used as a range extender. Turboelectric designs are simply hybrids without batteries. Hybrid electric architectures can be further divided into parallel and series hybrids. Series hybrid designs (Figure 2c) generate electrical power using a combustion engine and deliver both battery and fuel energy to the propulsor via electrical buses (HP = 1, 0 < HE < 1). Parallel hybrid architectures (Figure 2d) deliver combustion power to the propulsor mechanically (HP < 1, 0 < HE < 1). The combustion engine may operate continuously and use electrical power to reduce fuel flow [17], or the engine may disconnect via a clutch to enable full-electric operation during some portion of the flight envelope [19]. 2.2 Key Technological Parameters When evaluating the feasibility of aircraft EP today, the two most important tech- nological parameters are (arguably) specific energy (energy per unit mass of energy storage) and specific power (power of a component per unit mass). Specific energy is especially applicable to batteries, while specific power is especially relevant for electric motors, power conversion electronics, and energy storage devices. There does not seem to be a consensus in the literature on how to abbreviate specific energy and specific power symbolically. Like Pornet et al. [20], we adopt the convention of fluid dynam- ics, representing specific quantities as the lowercase of the extensive quantity: battery specific energy as eb, fuel specific energy as ef , motor specific power as pm, and so on. By convention, eb is tabulated in units of Whr/kg, specific power in units of kW or MW/kg, and heat values (ef ) of fuel in MJ/kg. Throughout this article, we convert Joule units into Whr units for specific energy comparisons. The most fundamental challenge facing aircraft EP is that batteries have on the order of 50 times lower specific energy than liquid fuels. For Jet-A, ef = 11900 Whr/kg, while lithium-ion batteries are in the range of eb = 200 Whr/kg [21]. The critical impact of specific energy is illustrated through Breguet range equations. For consumable fuels, 5PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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