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4.1 Direct Electrification Effects Hybrid and all-electric aircraft can claim benefits directly by replacing fuel with elec- tricity on shorter missions (see the Breguet range relations in Section 2). As eb grows, a larger share of economic missions can be flown on electric energy. If electricity is cheaper than jet fuel on a per-unit-energy basis, then this may result in an operating cost savings. Depending on the source of electricity, carbon emissions reductions may also result. This requires a detailed understanding of generator fuels, transmission/grid losses, and lifecycle analysis of battery production and disposal. If renewable electricity generation is assumed, carbon emissions reduction is a clear benefit of EP. All-electric aircraft also have a theoretical efficiency advantage by eliminating a thermodynamic cycle (see Section 2). If superconducting wires and power electronics are used, the electrical efficiency fraction may be very close to 1. This theoretical advantage is negated somewhat if battery energy is generated using conventional power plant turbines (which also experience thermodynamic losses). The efficiency advantage may still be meaningful even if grid power is generated using non-renewable means, since land-based steam turbines have higher thermal efficiency than aviation turbines. Readers of electric propulsion studies must carefully examine energy accounting to ensure that claimed emissions, efficiency, or total energy benefits are actually fair comparisons. For example, full-electric aircraft efficiency is often overstated by neglect- ing losses during grid power generation, while conventional aircraft understate carbon emissions by neglecting contributions due to petroleum processing. Replacing turbine engines and fuel systems with electric motors and batteries may reduce the maintenance cost of all-electric aircraft. An assumption seems to exist that electric motors will cost less to maintain than turbofans of equal power/thrust, but this does not seem to be backed by published, quantitative study. Goldberg et al. [109] examines the sensitivity of N3-X economics to maintenance cost and concludes that uncertainty in maintenance cost is an acceptable risk. Demonstrator programs should be structured in order to gather useful reliability and maintainability data alongside performance data. 4.2 Propulsion Effects In turbine engines, the rotation speed of the fan or propeller is coupled to the speed of the turbine. For DC architectures, the fan and turbine speeds are decoupled, enabling both to be operated at their ideal point [80]. Turboelectric and series hybrid archi- tectures capture all of the benefit of a geared turbofan engine (GTF) through reduced fan speed, with an additional efficiency benefit from shaft speed decoupling. Electric propulsion also may enable higher bypass ratio (BPR) by decoupling the number of fans from the number of engines. The combined effect of speed decoupling and bypass ratio is estimated at 4%–8% of ηp for a transport-category turboelectric aircraft [110]. This effect does not necessarily require distributed propulsion. Boundary layer ingestion (BLI) increases propulsive efficiency by ingesting slower air from the fuselage or wing boundary layer. Suction from the fan inlet changes the pressure distribution upstream, and fan outflow energizes the wake, causing some controversy as to whether BLI should be accounted as a drag decrement or a ηp incre- 20PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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