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274 Darlene Steward et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 272–279 Steward et al.,/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 3 Figure 1. Trend capacity of LIB and their key applications (projections for 2018-2025 are based on data from [3-5]) Current mine production of materials for LIB is limited to a few regions around the world potentially creating availability and price issues. The increased demand represented by the widespread adoption of electric vehicles and large-scale stationary storage combined with limited supply could put upward pressure on prices for these materials and potentially interrupt manufacturers’ plans and the projected growth of electric vehicle markets. According to data from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) [7], in 2017, 110,000 tons of cobalt were produced globally, with about 60% coming from the Democratic Republic of Congo. China accounted for 67% of the 1.2 million tons of natural graphite produced globally. Lithium extraction was concentrated in Australia (44%) and Chile (34%), with global production totaling 43,000 tons. Sixteen thousand tons of Manganese were extracted primarily in South Africa (33%), China (16%) and Australia (14%). Global nickel production totaled 2.1 million tons, with the Philippines accounting for 11%, Canada 10%, while Russia, and Australia each accounted for 9% of the total. In 2017, 32 countries accounted for all global production of these elements (Figure 2). 3. lithium-ion battery research Improving Li-ion battery performance and reducing cost have become increasingly active areas of R&D as Li-ion battery technology has become the leading technology for vehicle batteries. Research efforts are concentrated around six primary areas: reducing the dimensions of active materials to improve ion transport and increase mechanical stability; improving the mechanical properties of conductive media; adjusting battery chemistries to improve electron transport; increasing chemical and thermal stability; tuning particle morphology; developing coatings to reduce decomposition of active materials, and modifications of electrolyte solutions [2]. Battery types currently under investigation include lithium metal (lithium metal anodes), solid state batteries that employ solid inorganic or polymer electrolyte, and lithium sulphur with high capacity sulphur-containing cathodes, among others [8]. Whatever path battery technology takes, battery chemistry will likely change significantly over the next decade. Potential changes in battery chemistry, such as developing low-cobalt and cobalt-free cathodes, are important to the supply chain because they may have a significant impact on the demand for critical battery materials and cost. The evolution of NMC and NCA cathode chemistries—NMC and NCA are the main cathodes in automotive LIB—are centered on developing nickel-rich, cobalt-free cathodes [3]. According to Aviceene Energy [3], lithium-ion NMC cathode chemistry is shifting from high cobalt content (e.g., NMC 333) to lower cobalt and higher nickel content (e.g., NMC 622 and NMC 811). NCA, the main cathode chemistry used in Tesla cars, is also shifting toward higher nickel contents (and lesser cobalt content). Unlike NMC and NCA, both LMO and LFP have zero cobalt; therefore, most R&D efforts are directed toward improving their performance (e.g., specific capacity, volumetric energy density, and lifetime). Graphite is still the dominant anode material in most LIB, but recently some researchers have introduced silicon as a cheaper alternative to graphite. Silicon has higher energy capacity and relative abundance in the earth’s crust.PDF Image | Li-ion battery recycling challenges
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