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278 Darlene Steward et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 272–279 Steward et al.,/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 7 Figure 3. Recycling capacities of the spent batteries in metric tons (MT) (source of data: [9, 22, 23]) 6.3. Environmental and economic impacts of LIB recycling Lower cost of recycled materials is expected to be the main driver for recycling end-of-life LIB. Environmental and social aspects could also contribute to the need for more recycling of end-of life batteries. The key areas where we can see savings are cost, energy and greenhouse gas emissions. Table 2 summarizes some values from several studies [21 – 24]. Cost, as a key economic driver, is expected to decrease with economies of scale. The cost values provided in Table 2 are not fixed especially with the dynamic prices for raw virgin cobalt, lithium and other materials used in LIB. Significant savings in energy and emissions are also expected from recycling end-of-life LIB. However, direct recycling is an emerging recycling method and appears to be more environmentally friendly with lower levels of energy consumption and emissions relative to pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy. Table 2. Savings from recycling cathode materials from the end-of-life LIB relative to the use of virgin materials Cost LCO NMC333 NMC811 LFP Pyrometallurgy 38% 6% 5% more Hydrometallurgy 41% 13% 1% 38% 18% Energy LCO LMO LCO 70% 200 kWh/kg material CO2-Eq NMC333 78% 94% 9 kg CO2- Eq/ kg cell LMO 5% 10% 5 kg CO2- Eq/ kg cell LCO 11 kg CO2/kg- material 35% 70% Direct Recycling 43% 27% 16% Virgin Raw Materials $62 $45 $40 $32 MJ/kg MJ/kg 15% 5% 76% 77 34 Source [23] [22] 7. Concluding Remarks [22] [24] [25] [23] [24] Continued growth in the use of LIB batteries for consumer electronics, electric vehicles and grid electrical storage will increase the demand on critical materials such as cobalt, lithium and graphite. The increase in demand for electric vehicles will be partially but not fully offset by changes in LIB chemistry with lower cobalt content and new anode chemistries using silicon. Competition between original equipment manufacturers for scarce resources has highlighted the importance of recycling of the end-of-life batteries. All recycling methods have been shown to be economic at high volume with current raw material prices and battery composition. However, the reverse supply chain for ELVs and LIBs must be optimized to fully realize the economic benefits of recycling. Recycling also has lower environmental impacts compared to the mining of virgin materials. Direct recycling could result in less energy and emissions compared to pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy and can be used to recondition old cells to recover pure cathode and anode powders which need minimum processing before putting them back in the cells. Previous cost studies suggest cost savings that could reach 43% of the cost of cathodes made from virgin materials.PDF Image | Li-ion battery recycling challenges
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