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The most fruitful research area seems to be mate- rial separation technology on several scales. De- sign for recycling is another significant advance that could improve the prognosis for recycling. Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the DOE Office of Energy Storage for support, and the battery recy- clers and Argonne staff who provided infor- mation and helpful comments during the prepara- tion of this work. Thanks to Qiang Dai, who pre- pared many of the graphs, to Steve Sloop and Richard Schutte for technical insights, and to Daniel Abraham for the material photographs. This work was sponsored primarily by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Vehicle Technolo- gies. The submitted article was created by UChicago Argonne, LLC, Operator of Argonne National Labor- atory (“Argonne”). Argonne, a U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science laboratory, is operated under Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357. The U.S. Gov- ernment retains for itself, and others acting on its be- half, a paid-up nonexclusive, irrevocable worldwide license in said article to reproduce, prepare derivative works, distribute copies to the public, and perform publicly and display publicly, by or on behalf of the Government. The views expressed in the article do not nec- essarily represent the views of the U.S. Depart- ment of Energy or the U.S. Government. References [1] Gaines, L. 2014. “The Future of Automotive Lith- ium-ion Battery Recycling: Charting a Sustainable Course.” Sustainable Materials and Technologies 1(2): 2–7. DOI: 10.1016/j.susmat.2014.10.001. [2] Dunn, J. B., C. James, L. L. Gaines, K. Gallagher, Q. Dai, and J. C. Kelly. 2015a. “Material and Energy Flows in the Production of Cathode and Anode Materi- als for Lithium Ion Batteries." Report no. ANL/ESD- 14/10 Rev. Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory. https://anl.box.com/s/afw5c0u7w43rr5gyfys4r1zjfmy w5q14. [3] Tahil, W. 2007. “The Trouble with Lithium: Implica- tions of Future PHEV Production for Lithium De- mand.” Evworld.com. January. http://www.evworld.com/library/lithium_shortage.pdf (Accessed February 14, 2018). [4] Gaines, L. L., and P. Nelson. 2010. “Lithium-Ion Batteries: Examining Material Demand and Re- cycling Issues.” Presentation, TMS 2010 Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Seattle, WA, February. [5] Pillot, C. 2016. “The Rechargeable Battery Mar- ket and Main Trends 2015–2025.” Presentation, 33rd Annual International Battery Seminar and Exhibit, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, March. [6] The London Metal Exchange. 2018. “LME Co- balt.” https://www.lme.com/metals/minor-met- als/cobalt/#tabIndex=0 (Accessed March 5, 2018). [7] U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2018. “Cobalt.” U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Sum- maries, January. https://minerals.usgs.gov/miner- als/pubs/commodity/cobalt/mcs-2018-cobal.pdf. [8] U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2018a. “Nickel.” U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Sum- maries, January. https://minerals.usgs.gov/miner- als/pubs/commodity/nickel/mcs-2018-nicke.pdf. (Accessed 2/15/18). [9] U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2018c. “Lith- ium.” U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commod- ity Summaries, January. https://miner- als.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lith- ium/mcs-2018-lithi.pdf. (Accessed 2/15/18). [10] Dunn,J.B.,L.Gaines,J.C.Kelly,C.James,and K. G. Gallagher. 2015b. “The Significance of Li- Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicle Life-cycle En- ergy and Emissions and Recycling's Role in its Reduction." Energy and Environmental Science 8: 158–168. [11] Lien, L. 2018. “Recycling Lithium Batteries Us- ing Membrane Technologies.” Presentation, 233rd Electrochemical Society Meeting, Seattle, WA, May 14. [12] Shi, Y., G. Chen, and Z. Chen, 2018. “Effective Regeneration of LiCoO2 from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Direct Approach Towards High-Per- formance Active Particles,” Green Chemistry 20, 851–862. DOI: 10.1039/C7GC02831H. [13] Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parlia- ment and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing Directive 91/157/EEC (D2006/66/EC). 2006. Official Journal of the European Union. http://eur- lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriS- erv.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:266:0001:0014:en:PDF. [14] Gallagher, K., and P. Nelson. 2014. “Manufac- turing Costs of Batteries for Electric Vehicles,” chap. 6 in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Advances and Applications, edited by G. Pistoia. (Newnes). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59513- 3.00006-6. 10PDF Image | Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes
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