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Table 3. Vehicle Prices, Fuel Costs, and Ranges for Four Light Duty Vehicles117 Net Retail Price [$]a Vehicle Range a [miles] 2012 2012 Chevrolet Chevrolet Malibu Volt $21,995 $31,645 432 35/344118 2012 Ford Focus Sedan $16,500 384 2012 Ford Focus Electric $31,700 76 Annual Fuel Costs [$]b Gasoline Engine Technology Type PHEV $1,591 $573 $1,391 $435 b Price after available federal tax credits. State and local tax credits may be available. Assuming 12,000 miles per year (50% highway driving), gasoline costs at $3.50 per gallon, and electricity purchases made in the Denver metropolitan area. PEV batteries typically take several hours to recharge using a 120 V or 240 V outlet. Charging often takes place overnight so vehicles have enough stored energy to complete a morning commute. Under residential time-of-use rate plans available in certain regions, nighttime electricity is available at a lower rate than daytime electricity, further increasing the potential fuel cost savings for vehicle owners. Overnight charging also offers a synergy with wind power in many areas of the country; wind generally has higher outputs overnight and can be curtailed due to a lack of load if there is high wind penetration. Widespread overnight charging of electric vehicle batteries could help to reduce wind curtailments and create more revenue for wind turbine operators.119 The emissions benefits of electric vehicles vary depending on the generation mix of electricity used to power it, as well as the amount of gasoline fuel used (if a PHEV). A recent study estimates that the emissions rate for a battery-powered vehicle can vary by more than a factor of three, depending on the location of charge. The range of carbon intensity of electricity in the country corresponds to carbon emissions rates on par with gasoline fuel efficiencies between 31 and 115 miles per gallon (MPG), respectively. This results in emissions reductions between 11% and 75% relative to a 27-MPG car.120 As power-sector emissions are reduced due to fuel- switching from coal to natural gas, the average emissions benefits of electrified vehicles will increase. 4.2.5 Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles Hydrogen is currently being explored for applications in light-duty passenger vehicles, via direct/blended combustion in internal combustion engines (ICE) and in fuel cells. Either pathway emits only water vapor as a byproduct, reducing emissions of GHGs, criteria pollutants, and hazardous air pollutants. Also, it can be produced from a wide variety of domestic energy resources, reducing dependence on foreign oil and increasing energy security in the transportation sector. Natural gas–hydrogen blends such as HythaneTM (20% H2 by volume) or “HCNG” (30% H2 by volume) can meet strict emissions standards in bi-fuel vehicles while avoiding the need to use expensive catalytic converters to reduce nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. A lack of commercially available bi-fuel approved vehicles, large infrastructure costs, and short vehicle ranges will be significant barriers to market penetration. There are not currently any 30 Gasoline Engine PEVPDF Image | Opportunities Synergy Natural Gas and Renewable Energy
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