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M.E. Mondejar et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 91 (2018) 126–151 power output to the total area of the heat transfer equipment for six compounds, i.e., R600a, R1234ze, R1234yf, R245fa, R245ca, and R1233zd. The authors obtained the optimal ratio when using R600a as the working fluid. In Song et al. [76], the optimal compound was chosen among non-ozone depleting substances. The refrigerants R245fa and R236fa resulted as the optimal fluids, despite their high GWP. Considering a fixed UA-value as an indicator of heat exchanger size and cost, Andreasen et al. [79] proved that R245fa gives the highest net power output compared to R134a, R32 and a mixture of the two. The refrigerant R245fa is also used in the simple ORC turbogenerator de- signed by Calnetix Technologies [55]. For the regenerated ORC unit collecting the heat from the exhaust gases and scavenge air (Fig. 11a), Lode [80] suggested the use of R114 as the working fluid because it was thermally stable at temperatures up to 220 ◦C. For the same configuration, Hountalas et al. [84] compared an integrated two-stroke diesel engine and Rankine cycle unit running with either steam or R245ca, observing an increase in the net power output of up to 12% when using R245ca. Soffiato et al. [85] compared the performance of R134a, R125, R236fa, R245ca, R245fa and R227ea as working fluids for a simple ORC turbogenerator collecting the heat from the charge air, lubricating oil and jacket water; see Fig. 11b. They found that R227ea gives the highest net power output. Kalikatzarakis and Frangopoulos [86] screened 11 pure fluids and 9 mixtures to exploit the waste heat from marine engines using the layout and sources shown in Fig. 11b. Using environmental, economic and performance criteria, they found that R245fa and a mixture of R245ca and R365mfc (50/50) are the optimal working fluids. The compound used in the Opcon unit to recover the charge air and jacket water heat is R236fa [25,90]. 4.2.2. Legislation An important aspect related to the selection of the working fluid is the legislation concerning its environmental characteristics. In this re- gard, the Montreal Protocol [92] governing the phase-out of substances with high ozone depletion potential (ODP), and the regulation on fluorinated gases of the European parliament [93] governing the partial or complete removal of fluorinated substances, need to be considered. Fig. 12 shows the phasing-out calendar stated in the Montreal Protocol and the regulation on fluorinated gases (the so-called F-gas regulation). The timeline imposes the phase-out of highly ozone de- pleting substances and restricts the use of substances with high GWP. This applies to a number of working fluids commonly used in ORC systems (e.g., R134a, R236fa, R245fa, R245ca). In accordance with the Montreal Protocol, the revised Marpol Annex VI Regulation 12 [94], which entered into force in 2010, prohibits the use of CFCs in any system on all ships, and considers a transition phase for hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) by gradually decreasing their use until their final phase-out by January 2020. Both the Montreal Protocol and the Regulation 12 permit the use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), since they are considered as non-ozone-depleting substances. However, these chemical compounds have high or moderate values of GWP. Thus, their use may be regulated in countries following the Kyoto Protocol. As part of the EU commitments in the Kyoto Protocol, new restrictions will limit fluorinated greenhouse gases emissions (and thus the use of HFC) in the EU. The new F-gas regulation entered into force in January 2015 to strengthen the F-gas regulation enacted in 2006 [93]. This regulation limits the sales of the main F-gases by: (i) banning the use of F-gases in equipment where less harmful alternatives are available, (ii) forcing periodical controls of leakages in the equipment, and (iii) recovering the gases before disposal. The F-gas regulation will have the effect of initiating a phase-out of HFCs, in analogy to the high-ODP fluids regulated by the Montreal Protocol. Furthermore, new maintenance activities will be required to recover the fluid at the end of the equip- ment lifetime. In 2017, it has become mandatory to equip ORC systems using high GWP fluids with devices for leakage detection. Moreover, it must be noted that although the F-gas regulation applies within the EU, an amendment to extend the F-gas regulation worldwide, under the scope of the Montreal Protocol, was approved on 15th October 2016 by a total of 197 countries. This amendment will be applied differently depending on the level of development of each of the signing countries, and will have a significant impact on the existing ORC power units utilizing HFCs. The search for fluids with lower GWP could lead to substances with a higher flammability. As reported in Section 4.2, the optimal working fluid is, in most cases, a hydrocarbon. These compounds are flammable, this being a major concern aboard ships. However, no specific regula- tions about the use of flammable working fluids in marine boilers exist today. In a recent project about the conversion of a ship engine for the use of methanol as fuel, the Technical Research Institute of Sweden (SP) analyzed the measures needed to get fire safety approval according to the rules and regulations of the safety of life at sea (SOLAS) [95]. In this case, regulations 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 and 13 applied. Aspects concerning the probability of ignition, fire growth potential, or fire extinguishing were prescribed. In this sense regulation 17 in Chapter II-2, PART F, provides guidelines on the methodology to follow to seek for alternative design and arrangements. This regulation states that other solutions for fire safety are allowed if they can be shown to be at least as safe as the prescriptive design [96]. The same regulation could be expected, therefore, to be applied for ORC units installed on ships. More specifi- cally, in the Rules and Regulations for the classification of ships by Lloyd's Register [97], fuels are classified into two groups depending on Fig. 12. Phasing-out calendar stated in the Montreal Protocol [92] and the F-gas regulation [93]. 137PDF Image | organic Rankine cycle power systems for maritime applications
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