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Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4168 21 of 26 been conducted by CSIRO for pure sCO2 with temperatures and pressure scales up to 1000 ◦C and 250 bar respectively [41], results are limited because of the need to obtain more adequate long-term testing with actual conditions of impurities especially when H2O is present in the working fluid. Within the same framework, increased corrosion has been reported with temperature rise; whereas the consequence of pressure change was found to be negligible. To mitigate the detrimental effect of internal oxidation and surface carburisation, the more expensive alloys with a high Chromium and Nickel content are necessitated; Austenitic steels have reduced corrosion resistance at high temperatures. Most oxidation and carburisation laboratory tests are also limited to ambient pressure environments with pure CO2 fluids [40]. From the information stated above, one can deduce that the current array of materials still has major testing gaps, and is not suitable for the proposed operating conditions of the turbine (900 ◦C and 297 bar), unless cooling is incorporated. Collaborative efforts for all the material aspects is required for the actual adoption of the designed radial turbine. 4.2. Bearings Bearings are of great design importance for the actual adaptation of the proposed radial turbine to provide support for the relative motion between the rotating parts. As the density of the fluid lowers from supercritical high density to subcritical conditions at the extreme pressure of the Allam cycle, a large axial force is generated on the turbine component; the axial thrust load issue is resolved using suitable thrust bearings [44]. Mechanical contact-type bearings such as rolling, sliding or flexing elements are not considered by researchers for sCO2 applications. Non contacting, fluid-film hydrodynamic bearings are suggested by some [45,46] for their prevalence in high load/high speed industrial applications. A conclusion was obtained that oil-film bearings are not suitable for supercritical CO2 utilisation because of the solvent-like characteristics of the sCO2 fluid [47]. Recommendations include a specific hybrid hydrostatically-assisted hydrodynamic gas-foil bearing design, developed by Mechanical Solutions Inc. [48], that provides both radial and thrust support in a single combination component. The maximum temperature cited is up to 650 ◦C with a material coating which limits its applicability to the design in hand if no cooling is provided. Shaft size and weight will also limit the suitability since the inner diameter of the bearing geometry is 2 inches (≈51 mm) which is smaller than the expected shaft diameter of 120 mm (calculated for mechanical design). Another possibility is rare earth element magnetic bearings which could levitate for 100 MW shaft scales and are developed by Electron Energy Corporation [49]. In any case, because of the operating temperature and pressure ranges of the designed turbine, bearings, and other components like gears, need to be isolated from the turbine itself via shaft end seals (as discussed in the next heading). Turbomachinery design manufacturers can provide answers regarding bearing design for the configuration of the designed turbine based on shaft sizes, but it seems that commercially-ready solutions are not yet available. 4.3. Shaft End Seals Suitable shaft end seals for sCO2 cycles can limit the leakage of the supercritical CO2 fluid to minimise cycle efficiency penalties. They are required to separate the high pressure turbine from the rest of the ancillary components. Knowing that the temperature at turbine inlet is 900 ◦C, the seal at the end of the high-temperature/high-pressure side needs to be placed as far as possibly permissible from the turbine inlet without affecting rotordynamics. General Electric and the Southwest Research Institute [50] concluded that labyrinth seals are insufficient for providing the required low-leakage characteristics for the high-pressure fluid because the physical clearance is optimised for a single operating condition, and thus with the change of clearance gaps during different operation modes, leakage losses are aggravated. Non-contacting, dry gas lift-off face seals are suggested for high-temperature operation, with experimental testing by Sandia National Laboratories in collaboration with Flowserve Corporation at conditions of 700 ◦C, 4400 psi (≈303 bar) and aPDF Image | Radial Turbine Design for a Utility-Scale Supercritical CO2 Power
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