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Friction 3 Fig. 1 The capacitive configuration for triboelectric interface. charge injection depth will possibly interact with interfacial air capacitance, which will influence the dynamical responses of the triboelectric effect (as air has breakdown voltage strength, as stated by Paschen’s law) [20, 21]. Note that this configuration is important in understanding many more complicated triboelectric systems including triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs). By manipulating the triboelectrification and electric induction, there exist four working modes for TENGs, namely vertical contact mode, lateral sliding mode, single electrode mode, and free-standing triboelectric layer mode [16, 22]. These configurations are shown in Fig.2. Clearly, the capacitive configuration is significant in these devices [23]. If the charge injection depth is larger than the material geometry (i.e., in particle triboelectric systems), the simplified Eq. (1) may not hold, because the charge distribution will be modified to adapt to the limited surface area. For small particles with identical diameters, the capacitance between them Fig. 2 The four fundamental modes of TENGs: (a) vertical contact mode, (b) lateral sliding mode, (c) single electrode mode, and (d) free-standing triboelectric layer mode [5, 22]. can be calculated as [24] C 4π0r( 0.5ln(L/r)) (2) where is the Euler constant and L the distance between two identical particles of radius r [24]. Clearly, the description of particle capacitance is very different from that of area-unlimited surfaces. 2.1.2 Surface charge density Surface charge density is a parameter for measuring the final charging effects on both surfaces, and it will also significantly determine the triboelectric devices’ efficiency. It serves as the basis for analyzing parameters such as the current area power density and volume energy density [25]. Besides, it is a useful parameter to link and analyze surface capacitance characteristics and interface electrical performance, as shown in Eq. (3) [26]: V f(Q) f(Aeff. ) (3) where Q is the charge on the surface with an effective area of Aeff . . The accumulating charge will then introduce an obvious voltage V. Many previous studies have contributed to accurately measuring surface charge density in triboelectric processes, and some of the data are presented in Table 2 [27, 28]. One critical point is that the final surface charge density can significantly differ from the triggered charge led by the driving force of tribo-contacts. This is mainly because there may exist charge backflow when the contact surfaces are dynamically moving farther or closer, and this is a natural process if the capacitive configuration shown in Fig. 1 is considered [29]. Second, the driving force of the tribo-contacts would not completely contribute to the final surface charge density, as triboluminescence may play a role http://friction.tsinghuajournals.com∣www.Springer.com/journal/40544 | FrictionPDF Image | Fundamental theories and basic principles of triboelectric
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