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Friction 5 where Gf denotes the conductivity value in Siemans 2e2 As stated above, how to distinguish electron and/or ion transfer is important. As is known, the redox reactions are the signature for electron transfer because it leads to the valence change. Therefore, many experiments depend on the redox reactions to indicate the dominant charge transfer process [45, 46]. In turn, dependent on these experiments, the electro-potential of the surface (compared to H+/H2 (0 V versus NHE), which is not necessarily equal to the electro-potential energy) can be more quantitatively determined [46]. Note that the ion transfer in the tribo-charging process dominates the insulator charging surface. In the ion transfer process, because the surface may have strongly bounded ions of one charge polarity and loosely bounded ions of the other polarity. When the tribological contact is initiated, the imbalance affinity with various ions will lead to the transfer of certain types of ions, and as a result, accumulate charge on the surface [47]. This relation, with analyses into entropy and electrostatics, is depicted in Eq. (8) [2, 48]. (S) and kt h is the quantum conductance. Eg (e.g., ~9 eV for alkanethiol) and z are the material parameters, namely the band gap of the dielectric film and the dielectric film thickness, respectively. Here, it is assumed that the fermi surface is located in the middle of HOMO and LUMO [30, 38]. Even in particle triboelectrification (e.g., in phar- maceutical manufacturing), electron transfer is important. According to the nonequilibrium analysis conducted by Kron, Cubero, and Lacks et al. [40–42] an excess of electrons trapped in the more easily transferred (presumably higher-energy) state is the driving force for the particle triboelectric initiation, as shown in Fig. 3 [1, 42]. This conclusion is drawn with the assumptions and confirmations from other experi- ments and studies, which all verify that the density of the available energy states is high enough and not limited in even particle media, and that the charge transferred would not be limited by it [19, 43, 44]. 2.3 Ion Because electron transfer and ion transfer have several similarities, importance is cast onto how to distinguish the electron or ion source for charging in the triboelectric process. Even though the effective work function can be used to explain the metal–insulator tribo-pairs’ electrification, in case of insulator–insulator tribo-pairs, electron transfer is often believed to be impossible [2]. n expnde2 (8) Nn kT 0B where N is the ionic functional groups/units per area and n is the anion number density. d denotes the distance between the two “planar, equally and oppositely charged” surfaces [49]. Note that the term nde2 indicates the electrostatic free energy in ion 0 transfer, which serves as the determining factor for either positive or negative ion transfer. Specifically, if the ions transfer at the metal–polymer interfaces dominantly, the metal surface property is relatively trivial and the charge is believed to mainly stem from the protons dissociated from the ambient water residing on the contact surface. The fitting relation between the contact charge (density) q and the equilibrium constant for the association of a proton (pKb ) of insulators (especially polymers) is [36] log(q1)0.0305pK 0.2731 (with R2 0.91) b Fig. 3 (9) Moreover, in metal–polymer cases, ion transfer can http://friction.tsinghuajournals.com∣www.Springer.com/journal/40544 | Friction Tribologically accommodate and aid charge transferring in two surfaces (mainly insulating surfaces). induced non-equilibrium states to where R2 demonstrates the quality of fit.PDF Image | Fundamental theories and basic principles of triboelectric
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