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Friction 7(1): 2–17 (2019) 3 mechanisms in order for a better optimization, a more efficient design, and a greater development potential. Nowadays, newly developed low‐band‐gap polymers and hard X‐ray generators also urgently require a critical review into the triboelectric effect for some novel insights into the applications of these tribo‐devices [12, 13]. Though many simulation and modeling methods are being used to help explain the phenomena, the insufficient physical laws and mathematical description add to the difficulty [14, 15]. This review aims at providing and summarizing the deterministic theories, principles, and mechanisms for the triboelectric effect. Due to the intrinsic characteristics of the triboelectric effect for being system‐related and environment‐dependent, the review first analyzes the charging media in the tribo‐system and summarizes the potential mechanisms for these charging media to transfer (the charging process) in a more mathematical and physical sense (with some novel notions). With this understanding, a more complete list of the triboelectric series is summarized and the abnormal triboelectric sequence phenomena are discussed with clearer mathematical and physical explanations. After all the review into the tribo‐ system and its related depictions for the triboelectric effect, the important factors influencing the triboelectric performance are systematically studied in the same analytical manner. In addition, we describe the potential applications for these theories and principles for a more comprehensive integration with the triboelectric research and related fields, and how it can be used for a rational design of the tribo‐system is also included in each section. 2 Charging media and charging process The triboelectric effect is observable through the measurement of different charging media. An accurate measurement and assessment of the triboelectric effect requires suitable models such as charge injection depth and the evaluation of important parameters such as surface charge density. Given the possible electrical objects, the charging media can be divided into electron, ion, and (nano‐)materials. The underlying reasoning for the classification has never been explained systematically, and is summarized here, as shown in Table 1. From our viewpoint in this review, the most obvious difference for these three media is the unit charge carrying capacity. These are the general criteria to decide which media contribute dominantly to the observed phenomena in the triboelectric effect. Table 1 The general difference among electron, ion, and (nano-)material. 2.1 2.1.1 General important parameters Charge injection depth The triboelectric effect will introduce the charge to transfer dynamically, be stabilized dynamically, and be held at the tribological interface. Should the charge be held, the triboelectric interface must have the capacitance characteristics [8, 16, 17]. For example, it has been proved that part of the initial cause of tribological electrification depends on the presence of the internal electric fields in solid insulators [18]. Irrespective of the types of triboelectric contact modes used, the charge will be effective to a certain depth to form the capacitance. This depth is called the charge injection/penetration depth [19]. For simplicity, the capacitance characteristics in the triboelectric effect can be depicted with as [4, 16] C S / 4πk (1) where C is the equivalent capacitance, is the material’s dielectric constant, and k is the electrostatic constant. The simplest configuration with the capaci‐ tance in the triboelectric interface is shown in Fig. 1. This material‐determined capacitance formed by the Tribocharging media Electron Ion (Nano-)material Basic unit Electron Ion Atom & Ion Mass Low (~10–31 kg) Medium (~10–20 – 10–27 kg) * No consideration for macromolecules/ions Extremely high (>10–12 kg) Unit charge carrying capacity 1 (Medium; Constant) Usually 1–10 (Large; Ions may carry multiple charges) <<1 (Small; Some atoms carry no charge) http://friction.tsinghuajournals.com∣www.Springer.com/journal/40544 | FrictionPDF Image | Fundamental theories basic principles of triboelectric effect
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