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E. A. Emam/Petroleum & Coal 57(5) 532-555, 2015 547 latory pressure to reduce the volume of flared gas, which has serious environmental cones- quences. Recently the development of GTL technology has been an increased interest. GTL technology plays an interest role in delivering gas to markets as both fuel and/or chemicals [73]. The products from GTL have interest environmental advantages compared to traditional pro- ducts, giving GTL a significant edge as governments pass new and more stringent environmental legislation. So, conversion of flare gas (associated gas) to synthetic fuel has attracted more attention in some countries because of the economic and environmental benefits derive from it. Gas flaring to liquids conversions can be achieved via several chemical reaction processes resulting in a range of end products. The Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) technologies are the most widely deployed [74]. In F-T technology, associated gas firstly pass through a steam methane reformer to produce syngas (a mixture of CO and H2,). After that, syngas feeds into a F-T reactor that coverts to longer chain hydrocarbons (synthetic crude oil), water, and a "tail gas" comprising H2, CO and light hydrocarbon gases at an elevated pressure and temperature. The synthetic crude oil is then delivered to a conventional refinery for onward processing. The excess heat generated from the reaction has typically been removed by inserting boiler tubes that carry water. F-T products are of high quality, being free of sulfur, nitrogen, aro- matics, and other contaminants typically found in petroleum products, which is especially true for F-T-gasoline with a very high octane number. However, drawbacks also exist for the F-T process: the capital costs of F-T conversion plants are relatively higher and the energy effi- ciency of producing F-T liquids is relatively lower than the one for other alternative fuels such as hydrogen, methanol, dimethyl ether and conventional biofuels [75]. In the history of F-T technology process development, the various types of reactors, including multi-tubular fixed bed reactor; bubble column slurry reactor; bubbling fluidized bed reactor; three-phase fluidized bed reactor; and circulating fluidized-bed reactor, have been conside- red [76]. The F-T process was first developed by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch used iron- based catalyst followed by using both iron and cobalt-based catalysts in Germany between 1920s and 1930s [77]. From 1950s to 1990s, South Africa SASOL developed F-T commercially (in conjunction with coal gasification) to convert coal to hydrocarbons with total capacity 4,000,000 Mt/year in three plants; two still in operation [78]. From 1980s to present, Shell using F-T to convert natural gas to fuels and waxes in Bintulu, Malaysia [79]. From 1980s to present, a number of entrants into the fields, a number of projects announced and planned (including demonstration projects), Qatar and Nigeria have started design and construction on world scale GTL facilities [80]. Oguejiofor discussed some aspects of using GTL technology for reducing flare gas in Nigeria [81]. The main issue in Nigeria is to gather gas from more than 1000 wells by building gas collection facilities at the oilfields and constructing an exten- sive pipeline network to carry gas to an industrial facility where it turns into liquids for transpor- tation [82]. Gas flaring in Nigeria was reduced from roughly 49.8 % in 2000 to fewer than 26 % in 2006 [83]. A small scale simpler F-T processes can be deployed in small modular units to process associ- ated gas [74]. The smallest potential plant evaluated by the study would convert 2000 - 10000 MCF/day of gas into 200 - 1000 bbls/day of liquid products [84]. A novel catalyst using atomic layer deposition in small-scale mobile systems was developed for convert low-value natural gas to high value synthetic crude oil (GTL) [85]. A novel catalyst yields 2.5-times more synthetic crude with high conversion about 90 % and low methane selectivity for about 6 wt% than state-of-the-art catalysts for GTL. Additionally, it is robust and has a low deacti- vation. Preliminary economic assessments predict that the scaled-up 100 bbl/day process using 1 MMSCFD natural gas, having a $5 MM - $7.5 MM total investment, would achieve a 15 - 30 % IRR at a breakeven price of $20 - 75 per bbl depending on natural gas cost [85]. However, flared gas from the Farashband gas refinery in Iran is produced 563 bbl/day of valuable GTL products from the 4.176 MMSCFD of gas flared by GTL production [16]. The application of microchannel technology to F-T enables cost effective production at the smaller-scales appropriate for both onshore and offshore GTL facilities for stranded and asso- ciated gas reserves [79]. The microchannel technology to steam reforming of methane and F-PDF Image | GAS FLARING IN INDUSTRY
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