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Energies 2020, 13, 5859 10 of 23 with the precision that biomineralized CaCO3 required a lower temperature than limestone to reach full calcination. Again, in comparison to limestone, the shells presented better carbonation performances and faster decarbonation. Another waste material, carbide slag, was studied and compared to limestone [62]. The measured optimum carbonation temperature range for energy storage using carbide slag carbonated under 1.3 MPa was 800–850 ◦C, against slightly higher temperature for limestone, 850–900 ◦C. Under these operating conditions, the carbonation conversion of carbide slag was slower than that of limestone. However, the carbonated carbide slag showed higher cyclic stability than limestone, under high pressure. Oil shale ash was also proposed to be repurposed for TCES, as their main components are calcium, magnesium and silica, but it presented little potential for TCES [63]. The disposal of fly ash, a hazardous material resulting from solid waste incineration and containing CaO, was considered for its use in TCES application [64]. The analysis of the material revealed the presence of different heavy metals, and fly ash particles would agglomerate and be subjected to sintering when heated to 1150 ◦C. The fly ash particles could store energy, and one of the samples could release the stored energy (240 kJ/kg) (when compared to two other fly ash samples, it contained a higher amount of SiO2, but less Na2O and Cl−). Another work aimed to investigate the physical and chemical characterization of six fly ash samples obtained from different municipal solid waste incinerators, namely grate furnaces, rotary kiln and fluidized bed reactor, to determine their potential for CO2 storage and TCES [65]. Other materials such as a calcium-rich steel and blast furnace slags, treated with acetic acid, were considered and compared to limestone [66]. The various studied CaO-based samples featured a complex elemental composition including Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Mn and Cr. The study revealed the attractiveness of calcium and calcium magnesium acetates. However, the presence of Si was reported to enhance the mesoporosity of the sample after calcination, and to promote pore plugging. Moreover, the presence of Al was also reported to hinder the performance of the blast furnace slag samples due to leading to the formation of calcium aluminates. Among metal carbonates, strontium carbonate is also a very attractive material and is also considered for implementation in solar power plants (Equation (3)) [67,68]. A recent kinetic study focused on the investigation of the degree of the reaction, reaction rate constant, activation energy and diffusion coefficient of carbon dioxide through a series of experiments conducted between 800 and 1000 ◦C and under a CO2 concentration of 5–40 vol% [69]. The stability of the material over several cycles was improved by the addition of inert materials such as MgO (Figure 4). The stability of the SrCO3/SrO system was also enhanced through the addition of Al2O3 (34 to 50 wt%), inhibiting the sintering of the material as well as enhancing the flow of particles, and it was studied in a lab-scale fluidized bed reactor [70]. The optimal amount of 34 wt% of Al2O3 to SrCO3 was determined to limit the sintering. The dispersion of SrO particles before carbonation using polymorphic spacers such as CaSO4 and Sr3(PO4)2 was used in order to answer the issue of sintering in the SrO/SrCO3 system [67]. When using Sr3(PO4)2 contents between 25 and 50 wt% the system could go through multiple TCES cycles (10 to 30) with a stable energy storage density around 500 kJ/kg. While both calcium sulfate and strontium phosphate seemed to hinder sintering, strontium phosphate proved to be superior to calcium sulfate, showing higher gravimetric energy density at similar weight percentage added. The addition of MgO to SrCO3/SrO proved to greatly enhance the cycling stability performances [33]. MgO was used to stabilize SrO-based materials using different synthesis methods: co-precipitation, sol–gel, wet-mixing and dry-mixing [71]. The wet-mixing method, using strontium acetate hemilydrate and porous magnesium oxide as precursors, produced the sample showing the highest performances between 1000 and 1100 ◦C. From this method, the sample containing 40 wt% SrO exhibited a high cycling stability (100 cycles), at 1000 ◦C with a gravimetric energy density of 0.81 MJ/kg. SrO(s) + CO2(g) SrCO3(s) (∆H◦ = −241.5 kJ/mol) (3) A new concept of composite material based on BaO/BaCO3 was recently introduced for application in TCES (Equations (4) and (5)) [72]. The study focused on the destabilization of BaCO3 (which isPDF Image | Hi Temp Thermochemical Energy Storage via Solid Gas Reactions
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