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24-inch airfoils in 1982. Results of this investigation indicated that both the undiluted Type I and Type II fluids failed to completely flow off the wing prior to reaching liftoff velocity. The remaining residue, the researchers noted, formed a rough, reticulated sur- face, causing a measurable loss in lift and an increase in drag.2 Concerned about the results of the Boeing tests, the AEA sponsored a research pro- gram in 1984 with the von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics of Brussels, Belgium, to further investigate the possibility of aerodynamic penalties caused by the fluids. Using a 4.92-foot-chord two-dimensional model, the Institute conducted a series of experi- ments on the effect of the fluids on takeoff performance during subfreezing temperatures. The results of these tests generally agreed with Boeing’s findings. In the wake of this troubling conclusion, AEA asked Boeing to perform a flight test investiga- tion of the fluid effects. Before the flight tests could take place, however, two major accidents made the dan- gers of improper de-icing dramatically clear. At 5:34 A.M. on 12 December 1985, an Arrow Air DC-8 landed at Gander, Newfoundland, for refueling on a flight with U.S. military personnel from Europe to the United States. Although light freezing drizzle was falling during the refueling process, the pilot did not request de-icing. Taking off at 6:45 A.M., the aircraft pitched up after rotation, banked to the right, and struck the ground 3,000 feet beyond the end of the runway. The crash killed all 248 passengers and eight crew members. Although the investigation of the accident took place amidst controversy about the possibility that the plane had been brought down by a bomb, a majority of the Canadian investigating board and a judicial review concluded that the DC-8 had stalled due to ice contamination of the leading edges and upper surfaces of the wing.3 A second major accident took place on 15 November 1987. Moderate snow was falling as a Continental DC-9 prepared to depart Denver. The airplane was de-iced, but 27 minutes elapsed before the flight received takeoff clearance. Although company proce- dures called for additional de-icing if delays exceeded 20 minutes, the pilot elected to continue. The results were similar to the Arrow Air crash. The DC-9 stalled after rotation and impacted upon the right side of the runway. Twenty-eight people lost their lives.4 Full Speed Ahead 2 The work on de-icing fluids is summarized in Reinmann, Shaw, and Ranaudo, “NASA’s Program on Icing Research and Technology,” NASA TM 101989 (1989), and Eugene G. Hill and Thomas A. Zierton, “Flight and Wind Tunnel Tests of the Aerodynamic Effects of Aircraft Ground Deicing/Anti-Icing Fluids,” a paper pre- sented at the 29th Aerospace Sciences Meeting of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Reno, Nevada, 7–10 January 1991. 3 See New York Times, 9 December 1988; Toronto Star, 15 March 1989, and 19 July 1989. 4 For an excellent summary of icing-related accidents between 1946 and 1996, see the special issue of Flight Safety Digest, “Protection Against Icing: A Comprehensive Overview,” June/September 1997. 107PDF Image | History of NASA Icing Research Tunnel
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