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temperature (affected by ambient conditions) limits the condenser back pressure and power output of system. Total cost of the system is relatively high ($2,000–$3,000 per kW capacity) compared to the ORC system. A large percentage of total cost (capital and maintenance) is, again, in heat exchangers. Most applications for this system have been in geothermal and other non-heavy industrial areas. Exhibit A-18: Kalina Cycle System Components Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Cycle Use of supercritical carbon dioxide for low-temperature power generation is a relatively new development. These systems are discussed under the emerging technology section of this appendix. Thermo-Electric Power Generation (TEG) Thermoelectric (TE) technologies have been considered potential candidates for direct conversion of waste heat into electricity. TE materials are semiconductor solids that produce an electric current when joined together and subjected to a temperature difference across the junction. The principle of operation is the same that is used in thermocouples. The material properties make it possible to generate direct current electricity by applying waste heat on one side of a TE material, while exposing the other side to lower or ambient temperature surroundings. The conversion efficiency from waste heat to electricity depends on the material properties and the temperature difference between the hot side and the cold side. The systems have been developed to be used for a temperature range from 400°–900°F (200°– 480°C). Typical efficiency with the use of advanced material is from 5%–7% with a potential of reaching 15% as innovative materials, such as nano materials, are further developed. As shown in Exhibit A-19, a TE power generation system consists of four unit operations: A TE module consisting of an array of several or hundreds of TE material junctions A hot-side heat exchanger A cold-side heat exchanger A power electronic module to provide the desired volt and ampere output Industrial Waste Heat Recovery Page 62PDF Image | Industrial Waste Heat Recovery: Potential
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