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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 7 of 35 ultrasonic waves. To effectively harvest the mechanical energy, Qin et al. designed a microfiber-based PENG in 2008 using a hydrothermal approach with a ZnO thin film layer as an electrode [24]. This composite structure produces 1–3 mV output voltage and 4 nA current with a power density of 20–80 mW/cm2. Lin et al. (2008) demonstrated the cadmium sulfide (CdS)-based nanogenerator model similar to the ZnO nanowire-based nanogenerator [25]. The nanowire was grown using hydrothermal and physical vapor deposition process. The nanowires produced by physical vapor deposition process seems to produce larger voltage when compared to the nanowires produced by the hydrothermal method. In 2008, Yang et al. fabricated a laterally integrated PENG using flexible substrate without sliding contacts, which are capable of producing alternating current. The fabricated PENG creates an oscillating output voltage (AC) up to ~50 mV when a single nanowire is stretched and released with a strain of 0.05–0.1%. Such type of flexible PENG can be connected in series inside a common substrate to raise the power output [26]. The laterally integrated PENG is effective over vertically integrated PENG [26]. Moreover, the output voltage is 15–100 times higher than direct-current [23] and micro-fiber nanogenerators [24]. Using the same flexible PENG concept later in 2010, Zhu et al. achieved an open circuit voltage of up to 2.03 V, a current of 107 nA, and a power density of ~11 mW/cm3. The power generated from this PENG is stored in capacitors and used to light up a commercial light emitting diode (LED). Further, a peak output power density of ~0.44 mW/cm2 and volume density of 1.1 W/cm3 can be achieved by optimizing the density of the nanowires and by integrating 20 layers of nanowires. [27]. Lin et al. (2008) used light to tune the output performance of the CdS-nanowires-based nanogenerators [28]. The light reduces the height of the Schottky barrier on the nanowires, which gives a positive voltage output. In 2010, Xu et al. successfully integrated 700 rows of ZnO nanowires to produce a peak voltage of 1.26 v and a maximum current of 28.8 nA at a low strain of 0.19% [29]. Based on theoretical calculation, it is found that within the elastic linear mechanic’s regime, the piezoelectric potential of a nanowire is proportional to the amount of its deformation [15]. So, in a vertical-nanowire-integrated nanogenerator, the nanowires are connected in parallel between two electrodes; as we increase the external strain, their deformation amount increases, growing consequently with the output voltage. The magnitude of the output voltage also depends upon the rate at which the external strain is applied [29]. This high-power output can be used as a power source for neuroprosthetic devices; however, further research is necessary for effective integration. Huang et al. (2010) successfully synthesized the first InN (Indium Nitride)-based nanogenerator. The InN nanowire is grown by vapor–liquid–solid (V-L-S) process with the use of an Au nanoparticle as a catalyst [30]. The InN-based nanowire produces both positive and negative piezo-potential, and the maximum reaches up to 1 V, which is highest among all other nanowires. Nanogenerators based on lead zirconate titanate PZT nanofibres were demonstrated by Chen et al. (2010) [31]. The PZT nanofibres were fabricated by the electro-spinning process, and fine platinum wire is used as an electrode, which was assembled on a silicon substrate. The peak voltage and power output were 1.63 V and 0.03 μW; the output voltage depends on the pressure applied to the nanogenerator device. Cha et al. (2011) enhanced the piezoelectric potential by using nanopore arrays of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and sonic driven [32]; when the input sonic power of 100 dB at 100 Hz, the PENG generates an output of 2.6 V/0.6 μA, which is 5.2 times (piezoelectric potential)/ 6 times (piezoelectric current) higher than the PENG which uses bulk PVDF film, under the same sonic power input. In piezoelectric materials, due to surface desorption and native defects, free charge carriers are formed [22,33]. Lu et al. (2012) found that these free charge carriers affect the piezoelectric potential known as the screening effect [34]. ZnO nanorod was used for the study and they were illuminated using UV light; the carrier concentration increases up to 5.6 × 1018 cm−3 under 1.2 mW/cm2 illumination. As the UV light intensity increases, carrier concentration also increases, which makes the current-voltage characteristics insensitive. The carrier concentration can be reduced by improving the intrinsic properties using surface passivation, thermal annealing, and oxygen plasma [35–38].PDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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