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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 9 of 35 Jenkins et al. (2018) explored the behavior of diphenylalanine peptide using finite element analysis and found that this peptide nanowires can generate significantly higher power output than the nanowires made up of ZnO, lead zirconate titanate, and barium titanate [49]. The nanogenerator made out of this nanowire achieved an open-circuit voltage up to −0.6 V and short circuit current up to 7 nA. The output voltage remains stable for more than 1000 cycles and the maximum power generated was 0.1 nW for a load resistance of 100 MΩ. Recently, in PVDF-based piezoelectric nanogenerators, the performance is increased by fabrication techniques, piezoelectric materials, conductive, and non-conductive fillers, which increases the piezoelectric crystal structures, alignment of dipoles, and charge transfer [50]. The innovative 3D core multishell PENG showed improved performance [51]. Kang et al. used GaN nanoporous layers instead of nanowires, using electrochemical etching process in their PENG [52]. This suppresses the carrier screening effect and enhances the output voltage. Kang et al. (2017) demonstrated the transfer of a large area GaN membrane onto a flexible PET substrate in a transparent flexible piezoelectric nanogenerator using electrochemical lift-off process resulting in an output voltage and current of 4.2 v and 150 nA [53]. The same electrochemical lift-off process was used by Johar et al. to fabricate a flexible PENG by forming a p-n NiO/GaN heterojunction [54]. The lift-off process removes the residual stress in the GaN layer, which suppresses the free carrier screening. The developed PENG is capable of harnessing energy from the airflow, finger forces, and vibrations at a frequency of 20 Hz. Johar et al. (2018) fabricated the GaN (Gallium Nitride)-based piezoelectric nanogenerator using Ni as contact metal [55]. The output performance was enhanced by using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) as a dielectric medium between GaN nanowire and Ni electrode. A maximum output voltage and current of 15 V and 85 nA were generated. The significant improvements in the development of PENG over the years are illustrated in Table 2. It is evident from Table 2 that the condition of deformity, output power, and output power density was not always mentioned, which is essential to compare the performance among the PENGs. In all the studies, the authors have highlighted the output voltage obtained for the large surface, which is quite impressive to present the output results.PDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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