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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 11 of 35 3.2. Applications of PENGs PENGs acts as a sustainable power supply for various smart applications like self-powered nano/microsensors, self-powered electronics, wearable/flexible electronics, and biomedical applications [2,13,14,20,22,59,60]. Hu et al. (2011) [61] integrated the ZnO nanowire-based PENG onto a tire’s inner surface; the deformation of the tire during rotation gives a power output of 1.5 V and 25 nA with a maximum power density of 70 μW/cm3. The PZT nanofibres have higher piezoelectric voltage constant and dielectric constant, making it ideal for nanogenerator and nanobattery applications [31]. ZnO nanowire-based biosensors were developed in 2014, which paved the path for the future development of biosensing devices [62]. PENGs effectively harvest energy from the motions of internal body parts and powers health monitoring devices and implantable devices like pacemakers, cardioverter-defibrillators, and neural stimulators [63–65]. ZnO nanowires, indium tin oxide (ITO), and PZT film-based flexible and transparent nanogenerators were developed to harness power from finger typing [66–68]. Piezoelectric nanogenerators that have excellent flexibility and high output voltage have promising applications in power electronics. Various hybrid energy harvesters that integrate PENG with other types of energy harvesters like triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) and pyroelectric nanogenerator (PyENG) were developed for ubiquitous power generation and improved power conversion efficiency [69–74]. PENGs were also used in solar PV cells for improved power conversion efficiency. A tandem nanogenerator was developed by integrating silicon nanopillar solar cell with PVDF nanogenerator; this device was capable of harvesting energy from both sound waves and solar energy [75]. Zhu et al. (2017) fabricated a silicon-based nanoheterostructure photovoltaic device, which is based on the piezo-phototronic effect. The efficiency of the solar cell was improved from 8.97% to 9.51% [76]. Chemically reinforced composite-based PENG produces a maximum AC voltage of 65 V, which is converted into DC output using a filling wave bridge rectifier to charge capacitors and power LEDs [57]. Maity and Mandal (2018) designed an organic piezoelectric nanogenerator based on multilayer structure of PVDF NFL mats, followed by PEDOT coating, which exhibits an open circuit voltage of 48 V under the stress of 8.3 kPa [77]. This power output suggests its application in the field of self-powered wearable and portable electronics. An inorganic–organic hybrid piezoelectric nanogenerator based on zinc sulphide nanorods and electrospun PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) possesses a resonance frequency of 86 ± 3 Hz, an acoustic sensitivity of ~3 V/Pa, and very high wind energy conversion efficiency of ~58% [78]. This makes it capable of noise detection, wind energy harvesting, security monitoring, and also useful in self-powered sensors. There are several security systems sensors like transport monitoring [79], wireless sensors [80], and biomedical sensors [79,81] based on PENGs, which holds practical importance. 3.3. Outlook on PENGs The PENGs have high output performance when compared to the other piezoelectric energy-harvesting techniques. The ZnO-based flexible nanogenerators were able to produce power output 11–22 times higher than the PZT-based bulk cantilever energy harvester [27,29]. The multifunctional piezoelectric nanogenerators are the exact source of power for wearable and implantable devices. As these nanogenerators are integrated with electronics, dresses, and human bodies, future development should be focused on flexibility, durability, and stability. Organic polymers with high flexibility have to be identified to replace the existing organic polymers. The research on semiconducting nanowires is crucial to further improve the performance and the applications of PENGs. The first PENG was based on ZnO nanowires, and there were several improved models with ZnO nanowires. Apart from these, various other 1D nanomaterials like CdS, GaN, ZnS, InN, CdSe, InAs and 2D MoS2 that have good piezoelectric potential were also studied [25,30,31,53,55,82,83]. Optimization of structural design, integration, and packing of nanogenerators for self-powered sensors are some of the future requirements that have to be addressed for efficient electromechanical energy conversion.PDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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