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2.2.2 Unconventional Resources Produced water from most unconventional resources is minimal due to tighter reservoir formations, such as in tight sands, oil shale, and gas shale reservoirs. Producers commonly import water to these operations for onsite use in drilling, fracturing, and production. Fresh water used in drilling applications and reservoir fracturing is contaminated by the saline terrestrial water associated with the reservoir depositional environment. Fresh water brought onsite for use in operations, such as flow back or frac water returning from fracturing applications, also is managed as a waste stream. This waste stream commonly is associated with the initial phase of well development and production. In most unconventional oil and gas operations, frac water is considered the largest waste stream of production. Alternatively, coal bed methane produces the largest volumes of water during gas production as compared to other unconventional hydrocarbon production. The water in coal beds contributes to the pressure in the reservoir that keeps methane gas adsorbed to the surface of the coal. The water must be removed by pumping to lower the pressure in the reservoir and stimulate desorption of methane from the coal. Generally, as the gas production increases, the water production decreases; therefore, the volume of CBM-produced water generated decreases over time. Figure 1 shows the typical water and gas production profile for CBM producing gas wells. Figure 1. Typical water and gas production for CBM. 6PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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