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re-injecting the water into the subsurface formation is the preferred disposal/ management method. However, in some areas, disposal is not possible because the geology of the subsurface formation cannot accommodate the water, or re- injection may cause contamination of other subsurface water supplies. Offsite trucking is another water management strategy preferred by producers from a liability standpoint; however, it is very costly. 2.4 Environmental Impacts Caused by Produced Water Environmental impacts caused by the disposal of produced water have been reported since the mid-1800s when the first oil and gas wells were drilled and operated. The most commonly reported environmental concerns are as follows: degradation of soils, ground water, surface water, and ecosystems they support (Otton 2006). Because many produced waters contain elevated levels of dissolved ions (salts), hydrocarbons, and trace elements, untreated produced water discharges may be harmful to the surrounding environment. Large water volumes also can cause environmental impacts through erosion, large land area disposal basins, and pipeline and road infrastructure. Water hauling spills and unplanned discharges are all risks when managing produced water. The volume of the receiving body is critical in determining environmental impacts as ocean discharge offers substantive dilution, while small streams offer low dilution capacity. Physical water properties of concern include temperature, effervescence, low dissolved oxygen concentrations, as well as high and low pH depending on the well type. Sodium is the most commonly occurring dominant cation in produced water. High sodium levels compete with calcium, magnesium, and potassium for uptake by plant roots; therefore, excess sodium can prompt deficiencies of other cations. Elevated levels of sodium also can cause poor soil structure and inhibit water infiltration in soils (Davis, Waskom et al. 2007). Infiltration into shallow ground water sources is also a concern when water is applied for irrigation use. Mineral accumulation due to subsurface ion exchange can change the water quality of shallow, underlying aquifers. Trace elements, including boron, lithium, bromine, fluorine, and radium, also occur in elevated concentrations in some produced waters. Many trace elements are phytotoxic and are adsorbed in the soil. These elements may even remain in soils after the saline water has been flushed away. Radium-bearing scale and sludge found in oilfield equipment and discarded on soils pose additional hazards to human health and ecosystems. Meteoric water applied to contaminated soils has the potential to solubilize metals and transport them through the subsurface. Precipitation of metals and metal solubility are important considerations in applying these constituents to soils. 8PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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