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more toxic than produced waters discharged from oil platforms (Jacobs, Grant et al. 1992). The chemicals used in processing typically include dehydration chemicals, hydrogen sulfide removal chemicals, and chemicals to inhibit hydrates. Well-stimulation chemicals such as mineral acids, dense brines, and additives also can be found in gas produced water (Stephenson 1992). These additional compounds are discussed in a following section. 6.4 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials Naturally occurring radioactive elements include uranium, thallium, radium, and radon. These elements dissolve into water at low concentrations while water is in contact with rock or soil. Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in oil and gas production are primarily in the form of radon 226 and 228. Beneficial use of produced water containing NORM can contaminate soil, ground water, and surface water. NORM also is present in scale deposits that coat pipes and storage tanks conveying and containing produced water. Radium accumulation in equipment became apparent in the United States in the 1980s when unacceptable levels of radioactivity were found in oilfield pipe shipments (Zielinski and Otton 1999). In 1999, the USGS published Fact Sheet 0142-99, which focuses on the occurrence, regulations, and health concerns dealing with NORM in produced water. Figure 18 and the following information are summarized from this source. Color Legend: White = no data; gray to yellow = at background or marginally detectable; blue = less than five times the median background for all sites; pink = greater than five times the median background for all sites. Figure 18. Radioactive oilfield equipment (USGS Fact Sheet 0142-99). 59PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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