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organics, trace organics, and hydrogen sulfide. Iron and manganese removal in BAFs is mainly due to chemical oxidation rather than a biological process. Since BAFs do not remove dissolved constituents, however, high concentrations of salts can decrease the effectiveness of this technology due to salt toxicity effects. At chloride levels below 6,600 mg/L, there is no diminished contaminant removal with BAFs; and at 20,000 mg/L chloride levels, there will be a reduction in slime growth and BOD removal (Ludzack and Noran 1965). This technology can be used to treat water with much greater organic contaminant concentrations than typically found in CBM produced water. BAF is a well established technology and has been used for produced water treatment for many years (Doran 1997; Su, Wang et al. 2007). Because of this technology’s ability to remove oil and grease, it has been primarily used for oilfield produced water treatment (Su, Wang et al. 2007). Informal versions of BAFs require minimal equipment and can be made by flowing water over rock beds. These types of BAFs also have been used in CBM produced water treatment for iron removal and suspended solids removal. BAF is most effective on waters with chloride levels below 6,600 mg/L (Ludzack and Noran 1965), oil concentrations less than 60 mg/L; COD less than 400 mg/L, and BOD less than 50 mg/L. The maximum feed water constituent concentration for which this technology can be employed depends on desired removal and target water quality requirements. Removal capability of BAFs is dependent on the hydraulic loading rate on the filter and the raw water quality. The following are approximate removal capabilities of this technology: • 60 to 90% nitrification • 50 to 70% total nitrogen (USEPA 1991; Ball 1994) • 70 to 80% oil (Su, Wang et al. 2007) • 30 to 60% COD (Su, Wang et al. 2007) • 85 to 95% BOD (Su, Wang et al. 2007) • 75 to 85% suspended solids (Su, Wang et al. 2007) There is nearly 100% water recovery from this process. The residuals generated are from the settling of the microbial layer that sloughs off the media. The residuals generation, which is highly dependent on the water quality, is approximately 0.4–0.7 pounds of dry solids per 1,000 gallons of water treated (for wastewater treatment) (Ball 1994). Solids disposal is required for the sludge that accumulates in the sedimentation basins, and solids disposal can account for up to 40% of total cost of technology. This technology has a long expected lifespan. BAFs require upstream and downstream sedimentation; therefore, they have a large footprint and are not very mobile or modular. Very little monitoring is required, and occasional emptying of sedimentation ponds is required; the use of this technology does not require 71PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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