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(ALL 2003). Flotation cannot remove soluble oil constituents from water. Product water is nearly 100% with this technology. Because flotation involves dissolving a gas into the water stream, flotation works best at low temperatures. If high temperatures are present, a higher pressure is required to dissolve the gas in the water. Energy is required to pressurize the system to dissolve gas in the feed stream. Coagulant chemical may be added to enhance removal of target contaminants. Chemical coagulant and pumping costs are the major components of O&M costs for flotation. Treatment costs are estimated to be $0.60 per cubic meter (Çakmakce, Kayaalp et al. 2008). Solids disposal will be required for the sludge generated from flotation. 7.1.4 Adsorption Adsorption can be accomplished using a variety of materials, including zeolites, organoclays, activated alumina, and activated carbon. Chemicals are not required for normal operation of adsorptive processes. Chemicals may be used to regenerate media when all active sites are occupied. Periodically, the media is backwashed to remove large particulates trapped between the voids in the media. Typically, these processes can be gravity fed and do not require an energy supply, except during backwash. Adsorbents are capable of removing iron, manganese, total organic carbon, BTEX compounds, heavy metals, and oil from produced water. Adsorption is generally utilized as a unit process in a treatment train rather than as a stand-alone process. The adsorbent can be easily overloaded with large concentrations of organics, so this process is best used as a polishing step rather than as a primary treatment process (Veil). Adsorption is capable of removing over 80% of heavy metals (Spellman 2003) and can accomplish nearly 100% product water recovery. Media usage rate is one of the main operational costs for adsorptive processes and may require frequent replacement or regeneration depending on media type and feed water quality. When all active sites of the adsorptive material have been consumed, the material must either be regenerated or disposed of. Regenerating the materials will result in a liquid waste for disposal. Solid waste disposal is necessary when the material needs to be replaced entirely. There will be a pressure loss incurred across the filter; however, depending on the plant configuration, this may not require any additional pumps. Pumps will be necessary to backwash the filters. Adsorption is best used as a polishing step to avoid rapid usage of adsorbent material. Waste disposal is required for spent media or the waste produced during regeneration of the media. 74PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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