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7.1.10 Constructed Wetlands One of the major benefits of constructed wetlands is that these systems have low construction and operating costs. The estimated cost of constructed wetlands treatment is $0.01 to $0.02 per bbl. However, these systems are not efficient and the treatment rate is slow compared to other technologies. The average lifespan of a constructed wetland is approximately 20 years (Shutes, 2001). A study was conducted to look at a hybrid reverse osmosis (RO) constructed wetland system for produced water treatment. This study showed that, while RO removes the majority of organic and inorganic constituents, it does not sufficiently remove dissolved organic compounds. These compounds were removed by the constructed wetland. Toxicity tests were conducted with a few different types of bacteria. All species of bacteria experienced a greater survival rate with water that had been passed through the constructed wetland. Many water quality parameters were increased following the wetland construction, such as TDS and calcium. SAR was decreased. Boron removal was not addressed in this study, and mention was made that for irrigation, the levels of boron in the treated water may be too high (Murry-Gulde 2003). 7.1.11 Granular Activated Carbon Granular activated carbon (GAC) can be used to remove the following contaminants from produced water: mercury, cadmium, natural organic matter, BTEX compounds, synthetic organic chemicals—specifically benzo(a)pyrene, di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, hexachlorobenzene, dioxin, and radionuclides. For source water with a large amount of bacteria, pretreatment in the form of filtration and disinfection prior to carbon treatment may be required. Filtration prior to GAC also may be required when dealing with high TSS waters. GAC has an extremely large amount of adsorption surface area, generally around 73 acres per pound (acre/lb) (650 square meters per gram [m2/gram]) to 112 acres/lb (1,000 m2/gram) (AWWA, 2005, Water Treatment Plant Design). GAC is made of tiny clusters of carbon atoms stacked upon one another and is produced by heating the carbon source (coal, lignite, wood, nutshells, or peat) in the absence of air, which produces a high carbon content material. The adsorption isotherm for carbon and the source water will determine the total contaminant removal capacity. The physical removal of a contaminant by adsorption on to the carbon surface is done in the mass transfer zone. Breakthrough is defined as the point at which the concentration of a contaminant in the effluent adsorption unit exceeds the treatment requirement (AWWA, 2005, Water Treatment Plant Design). This breakthrough time is important to note so that treatment goals are not exceeded and that backwashing rates can be optimized. Backwashing a GAC system follows the same general procedures as a conventional granular gravity filter 78PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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